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<  tCTOBER. 


CLIMATOLOGY  and  MINERAL  WATERS 


OF  THE 


UNITED    STATES 


BY 

A.   K    BELL,  A.M.,  M.D. 

EDITOR    OP    "THE    SANITARIAN;"     MEMBER     OP    AMERICAN     MEDICAL    ASSOCIATION,    AMERICAN     PUBLIC 
HEALTH   ASSOCIATION,   AMERICAN    CLIMATOLOGICAL  ASSOCIATION,   MEDICAL  SOCIETY   OF  THE 
STATE   OF  NEW  YORK,    KINGS  COUNTY   MEDICAL  SOCIETY,  N.  Y. ;   HONORARY  MEM- 
BER OP  CONNECTICUT   MEDICAL  SOCIETY;     CORRESPONDING    MEMBER 
OP      THE      EPIDEMIOLOGICAL      SOCIETY      OP      LONDON; 
FORMERLY  P.  A.  SURGEON  U.  S.  NAVY,  ETC. 


NEW     YORK 

WILLIAM    WOOD    &    COMPANY 

1885 


9- 


Copyright 

WILLIAM    WOOD    &    COMPANY 

1885 


INTRODUCTION". 


It  has  been  my  effort  iu  this  treatise  so  to  present  the  ascertained 
facts  in  regard  to  the  variety  of  climate  and  mineral  waters  in  the  United 
States  as  to  render  them  available  for  the  promotion  of  health.  To  this 
end,  wherever  I  have  not  myself  observed  the  conditions  described,  I 
have  used  the  observations  of  others,  and,  for  the  most  part,  in  their  own 
words,  without  regard  to  any  preconceived  theory  of  relative  values; 
that  whatever  may  be  the  difference  in  the  views  of  physicians  or  other  per- 
sons on  the  relative  value  of  different  climates  and  mineral  waters  in  par- 
ticular cases,  or  for  the  promotion  of  health  in  general,  the  work  will  be 
equally  available  for  all,  with  regard  to  the  data  of  any  given  place  or 

climate,  or  mineral  waters  sought. 

A.   N".    BELL. 

New  York,  October  3d,  1885. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

PAGE 

WHAT  IS  CLIMATOLOGY  ? 1 


CHAPTER    II. 
THE  ATMOSPHERE— ITS  EXTENT  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES....      4 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE    COMPOSITION    OF  THE   ATMOSPHERE— ITS    PERMANENT 
CONSTITUENTS. 

Oxygen  and  Its  Properties — Ozone?— Production,  Distribution,  and  Proper- 
ties— Tests  and  Uses;  Nitrogen 7 

CHAPTER    IV. 

VARIABLE    CONSTITUENTS     OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE.      AMMO- 
NIA,   CARBONIC  ACID,   AND  ELECTRICITY. 

Nature  and  Sources  of  Ammonia — Abundance  and  Properties — Indications — 
Putrefaction  and  its  Results — Tests  ;  Carbonic  Acid  :  Nature,  Sources 
Properties,  Diffusion,  Dangers  and  Tests  of  ;  Moisture  :  Quantity  and  Pro- 
portion of  in  the  Atmosphere  at  Temperatures — Absolute  Humidities ; 
Electricity  ;  Floating  Matter  in  the  Air 28 

CHAPTER    V. 

THE  STABILITY  OF    LOCAL    CONDITIONS    OF    CLIMATE  ;  THE 
RELATIONS  OF  LAND  AND  WATER  TO  CLIMATE. 

Permanency  of  Geological  Agencies,  Action  of  the  Air  and  Water  on  the 
Earth's  Crust — Disintegration  of  Rock— Production  of  Soil— Rivers — 
Ocean  Currents  -The  Gulf  Stream 45 

CHAPTER    VI. 
STABILITY  OF  LOCAL  CONDITIONS  OF  CLIMATE.     (Continued.) 

The  Relations  of  Organic  Agencies  to  Climate— Corals  and  Coral  Islands- 
Peat  and  Coal. . . 51 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    VII. 
HEAT. 

PAGE 

Laws  of  Heat — The  Zones — How  the  Temperature  of  the  Earth's  Surface  is 
Maintained — Different  Conditions  of  Heat — Anomalies  of  Extreme  Heat 
in  the  Eastern  States,  and  its  Dangers — Relations  of  Heat  to  Altitude. . .     54 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE  WINDS. 

How  Produced — Trade-Winds — Influence  of  the  Seasons — Topographical  In- 
fluences— Relation  to  Certain  Diseases 64 

CHAPTER    IX. 

ALTITUDE. 

Dryness  and  Elevation, with  Special  Reference  to  Phthisis — Determination  of 
Dryness— U.  S.  Signal  Stations  Rated  in  Order  of  Dryness — Relative 
Breathing-Capacity  of  Dry  and  Moist  Air — Physical  Effects  of  Extreme 
Altitude 72 


CHAPTER    X. 

ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSURE. 

The  Caisson  Disease — Connection  between  the  Fall  of  the  Barometer  and 

Painful  Sensations  in  the  Limbs b5 

CHAPTER    XI. 

SEA-COAST  PLACES  AND   OCEAN  AIR. 

Insular  and  Sea-Coast  Climates— Warm  Moist  Climates— Sea- Air  Proper — 
Ratio  of  Deaths  from  Consumption  to  Other  Diseases  among  Seamen — 
Special  Benefit  of  Ocean  Air  to  Consumptives — Ozone  in  Ocean  Air — 
Purity  of  Ocean  Air  and  its  General  Salubrity 68 


CHAPTER    XII. 

FORESTS. 

Function  of  Plants  in  Drying  the  Soil — Forest  Air  Essentially  Moist — Special 
Qualities  of  Pine  Forests — Conservative  Influence  of  Forests  in  Cold 
Climates — Effects  of  Forest  on  Temperature — Relations  of  Electricity  and 
Ozone  to  Forests— The  Eucalyptus,  its  History,  Cultivation,  and  Prop- 
erties  


CHAPTER    XIII. 

CLIMATOLOGICAL  TOPOGRAPHY  IN  GENERAL. 

Influences  of  Size,  Position,  and  Shape  of  Masses  of  Land— Surface  Condi- 
tions— Relations  to  Ocean  Currents  and  Winds — Outline  and  General 
Configuration  of  Continents Ill 


I  o.N  I  I   VIS.  \  || 

OHAPTEB    XIV. 

CLIMATOLOG1CAL  TOPOGRAPHY  OF  THE   UNITKD  STATES. 

I'.W.h 

Tabulated  Statistics  and  Meteorological  Data— Relative  Proportion  of  Deaths 
from  Consumption  and   Nervous  Diseases  to   l><-:itlis  from  All  Can 
Barometrical  Records— Temperature  Records    Humidity  Records — Eleva- 
tions of,  Above  Sea-Level — Barometrical  Reductions  to  Sea-Level l  Ki 

CHAPTER    XV. 

THE    CLIMATOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPHY    AND    MINERAL    SPRINGS 
OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES 1 11 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

THE    CLIMATOLOGICAL   TOPOGRAPHY    AND    MINERAL    SPRINGS 

OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN 169 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

THE    CLIMATOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPHY    AND    MINERAL    SPRINGS 
OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS 302 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE    CLIMATOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPHY    AND    MINERAL    SPRINGS 
OF   THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE 232 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
THE    WEATHER. 

MONTHLY    AND  ANNUAL  PRESSURE,    TEMPERATURE,    HUMIDITY,    PRECIPITATION, 
PREVAILING   WINDS  AND   STORMS,    AND  ATMOSPHERIC   ELECTRICITY  : 

1.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  July 851 

•J.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  August 259 

3.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  September 265 

4.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  October 271 

Aqueous  Vapor  in  Relation  to  Perpetual  Snow 277 

5.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  November 379 

6.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  December '-)s!' 

7.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  January 299 

American  Storms  Advancing  in  a  Southerly  Direction 305 

8.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  February 309 

9.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  March 319 

10.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  April 327 

11.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  May 335 

12.  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  June 345 

CHAPTER    XX. 
THE  SEASONS 357 

CHAPTER    XXI. 
THE  RELATIONS  OF  CLIMATOLOGY  TO   LIFE  INSURANCE 370 

CHAPTER    XXII. 
PRACTICAL  CONCLUSIONS 376 


CHAPTER   I. 
WHAT    IS    CLIMATOLOGY? 

Climatology  is  the  sum  of  the  influences  exerted  upon  the  atmo- 
sphere by  temperature,  humidity,  pressure,  soil,  proximity  to  the  sea, 
lakes,  rivers,  plains,  forests,  mountains,  light,  ozone,  electrical  condi- 
tions, and,  doubtless,  by  some  other  conditions  of  which  we  have  no 
knowledge. 

Various  efforts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by  different  writers 
to  classify  climates  by  taking  one  or  more  of  these  elements  or  forces 
which  constitute  climate  as  an  index  of  its  general  character.  But  it  is 
apparent  that,  in  estimating  the  climate  of  any  place,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  force  of  all  the  factors  should  be  ascertained  severally,  in  order  to 
arrive  at  correct  conclusions  with  relation  to  the  general  result  of  the 
combined  action.  Moreover,  in  all  such  efforts,  indeed  with  reference 
to  climates  generally,  controllable  conditions  which  exercise  influence 
should  be,  as  far  as  practicable,  considered  apart.  These  are  more  or  less 
dangerous  according  to  the  temperature  and  hygrometric  state  of  the 
atmosphere  of  the  place,  and  have  often  been  so  intimately  interwoven 
with  natural  climatic  conditions  as  to  confer  bad  repute  on  places  which, 
so  far  as  meteorological  influences  alone  are  concerned,  are  the  reverse. 
Insomuch,  indeed,  that  even  so  distinguished  a  sanitarian  as  the  lute 
Edmund  A.  Parkes  was  wont  to  attribute  the  excessive  mortality  which 
used  to  prevail  among  the  British  forces  in  India  and  the  West  Indies 
to  the  toleration  of  unsanitary  conditions,  rather  than  to  climate.  He 
remarks,  in  this  connection: 

"  It  may  seem  to  be  a  bold  thing  to  question  the  commonly  received 
opinion  that  a  tropical  climate  is  injurious  to  a  northern  constitution, 
but  there  are  some  striking  facts  which  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with 
such  an  opinion.  The  army  experience  shows  that,  both  in  the  West 
Indies  and  in  India,  the  mortality  of  the  soldiers  has  been  gradually  de- 
creasing until,  in  some  stations  in  the  West  Indies  (as,  for  example, 
Trinidad  and  Barbadoes),  the  sickness  and  mortality  among  European 
soldiers  are  actually  less  than  on  home  service,  in  years  which  have  no 
yellow  fever.  In  India,  a  century  ago,  people  spoke  with  horror  of  the 
terrible  climate  of  Bombay  and  Calcutta,  and  yet  Europeans  now  live  in 
health  and  comfort  in  both  cities.  In  Algeria,  the  French  experience  is 
1 


2  WHAT   IS   CLIMATOLOGY? 

to  the  same  effect.  As  the  climate  and  the  stations  are  the  same,  and  the 
soldiers  are  of  the  same  race  and  habits,  what  has  removed  the  dangers 
which  formerly  made  the  sickness  threefold  and  the  mortality  tenfold 
the  rates  of  the  sickness  and  deaths  at  home? 

"  The  explanation  is  very  simple;  the  deaths  in  the  West  Indies  were 
partly  owing  to  the  virulence  of  yellow  fever  (which  was  fostered,  though 
probably  not  engendered,  by  bad  sanitary  conditions),  and  the  general 
excess  of  other  febrile  and  dysenteric  causes.  The  simple  hygienic  pre- 
cautions which  are  efficacious  in  England  have  been  as  useful  in  the 
West  Indies.  Proper  food,  good  water,  pure  air  have  been  supplied,  and 
in  proportion  as  they  have  been  so,  the  deadly  effects  attributed  to 
climate  have  disappeared.  The  effect  of  a  tropical  climate  is,  so  to  speak, 
relative.  The  temperature  and  the  humidity  of  the  air  are  highly  favor- 
able to  decomposition  of  all  kinds;  the  effluvia  from  an  impure  soil,  and 
the  putrescent  changes  going  on  in  it,  are  greatly  aggravated  by  heat. 
The  effects  of  the  unsanitary  evils,  which  in  a  cold  climate,  like  Canada, 
are  partly  neutralized  by  the  cold,  are  developed  in  the  West  Indies  or  in 
tropical  India  to  the  greatest  degree.  In  this  way,  a  tropical  climate  is 
evidently  most  powerful,  and  it  renders  all  sanitary  precautions  tenfold 
more  necessary  than  in  the  temperate  zone.  But  this  is  not  the  effect  of 
climate,  but  of  something  added  to  climate. 

"  Take  away  these  sanitary  defects,  and  avoid  malarious  soils,  or  drain 
them,  and  let  the  mode  of  living  be  a  proper  one,  and  the  European 
soldier  does  not  die  faster  in  the  tropics  than  at  home."1 

These  remarks  by  Dr.  Parkes  are  fully  in  accord  with  our  own  ob- 
servations and  studies,  thirty  years  ago,  on  the  Gulf  coast  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  in  the  West  Indies,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
The  sickly  places  were  everywhere  marked  by  unsanitary  local  conditions. 

Eecent  observations  on  the  climatology  and  local  conditions  of  foreign 
ports  and  places,  comprehended  in  the  reports  of  the  Surgeon-General 
of  the  United  States  Navy;  the  meteorological  and  other  reports  of  the 
Surgeon-General  of  the  United  States  Army;  the  Smithsonian  "  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge,"  and  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Signal 
Service  Bureau,  on  all  of  the  more  important  centres  and  places  in  the 
United  States  and  Territories,  and  places  in  intimate  commercial  rela- 
tions therewith,  abundantly  confirm  the  conclusion  of  Dr.  Parkes  and 
our  own  observations  abroad;  and  our  many  years'  close  attention  to  the 
effects  of  local  conditions  in  conflict  with  climate  throughout  the  United 
States. 

It  is  an  almost  universal  practice,  which  the  author  of  this  work  fol- 
lows, to  measure  the  influence  of  climate  by  the  relation  which  different 
regions  and  localities  hold  to  pulmonary  consumption — a  disease  which 


1  Parkes'  "  Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene."    "Wood's  Library  Edition.    Vol.  ii., 
pp.  80-81. 


\\  II  \T    I-    l   I.I  M  \  lol.-w.y  '.  3 

probably  more  than  any  other  depends  upon  preventable  conditions  in- 
timately associated  with  a  foul  soil,  or  density  of  population. 

The  A  tab,  accustomed  to  the  free  air  of  the  desert,  is  said  to  bo 
afraid  of  even  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  Many  other  persons  there  arc, 
besides  Arabs,  whose  sense  of  smell  is  sufficiently  acute  to  detect  the 
odor  of  great  cities  at  a  considerable  distance.  Yet  there  are  multitudes 
of  people  in  some  of  the  most  salubrious  climates  in  the  world,  natur- 
ally, who  fail  to  appreciate  the  difference  between  the  stifling  air  of  a 
badly  constructed  house  and  the  Arab's  tent  until  they  experience  the 
results  ;  or  to  recognize  the  fact  that  no  climate  is  proof  against  the 
sickening  emanations  of  a  filthy  soil,  city  or  country.  Primarily,  there- 
fore, a  sharp  distinction  should  be  made  between  such  artificial  and  local 
conditions  as  are  removable,  and  those  which  are  natural  and  permanent, 
and  measurable  by  meteorological  instruments.  It  is  the  latter  with 
which  we  have  most  to  do  in  this  treatise,  excepting  only  the  incidental 
relations  of  the  former  as  modifying  influences.  But  unfortunately  these 
incidental  relations  are  so  common  as  to  make  the  exceptions  numerous, 
and  it  is  quite  safe  to  say  that  there  are  few,  if  indeed  there  are  any, 
cities  or  villages  in  the  United  States,  with  populations  of  a  thousand 
and  upwards,  which  are  not  more  or  less  contaminating  to  the  air  of 
their  surroundings  by  neglected  local  conditions. 


CHAPTEE    II. 

THE    ATMOSPHERE— ITS    EXTENT    AND    PHYSICAL 
PEOPEETIES. 

The  air  is  the  first  condition  of  life,  the  first  element  of  our  bodily 
tissues.  It  enters  our  bodies  by  the  lungs,  is  absorbed  by  the  blood,  and 
courses  through  the  system.  By  breathing  alone,  the  air  supplies  three- 
quarters  of  our  bodily  nourishment,  and  the  other  quarter,  which  is  taken 
in  the  form  of  liquid  and  solid  aliment,  consists  of  substances  chiefly 
composed  of  the  same  elements. 

An  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  extent,  properties,  composition, 
and  external  relations  of  the  atmosphere  is,  therefore,  an  essential  pre- 
requisite to  a  correct  comprehension  of  the  conditions  of  climate. 

The  extent  of  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  the  earth  is  estimated 
by  astronomers  to  be  about  forty-five  miles  from  the  surface,  but  with 
uniformly  decreasing  density.  It  is,  when  pure,  colorless,  transparent, 
inodorous,  tasteless,  and  so  elastic  that  it  may  be  condensed  to  nearly 
the  specific  gravit}7  of  water,  or  expanded  by  heat  to  thrice  its  volume — 
never,  however,  losing  its  gaseous  condition.  It  is  also  ponderable;  this 
was  first  made  evident  when  Galileo  pointed  out  to  the  pump  makers  of 
Florence  the  reason  why  they  were  not  able  to  raise  water  in  their  pumps 
to  a  greater  height  than  thirty-two  feet — because  the  weight  of  a  column 
of  the  atmosphere  was  not  sufficient  to  balance  it.  Toricelli,  his  pupil, 
demonstrated  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  which  would  support 
a  column  of  water  thirty-two  feet  high,  would  support  a  column  of 
mercury  only  thirty  inches  high,  because  mercury  is  fourteen  times  heav- 
ier than  water.  This  he  did,  by  taking  a  tube  about  thirty-three  inches 
long,  holding  his  finger  at  the  bottom,  and  filling  it  with  mercury;  then 
dipping  the  lower  end  into  a  basin  of  mercury,  and  removing  his  fingers 
from  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  the  mercury  was  found  to  remain  in  the 
tube  to  the  height  of  thirty  inches  from  the  surface  of  that  held  in  the 
basin.  This  experiment  was  the  first  invention  of  the  barometer,  and 
the  first  actual  demonstration  of  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  Now, 
inasmuch  as  a  column  of  mercury  one  inch  square  and  thirty  inches 
high  weighs  fifteen  pounds,  and  this,  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  sustained 
by  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  therefore  a  column 
of  atmosphere  one-inch  square  and  forty-five  miles  high  is  of  the  same 


I  III.     A  I  Mi  i-I'M  I   l;l  . 


weight  as  the  column  of  mercury  thirty  inches  high— fifteen  pounds. 
Hence  the  barometric  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  sea  lerel  is 
demonstrated  to  be  fifteen  pounds  to  the  Bquare  inch  of  Burface. 

The  pressure  of  this  greal  weighl  upon  our  bodies  ie  nol  felt  by  us 
on  accounl  of  its  perfecl  diffusion  around,  and  through  our  bodily 
tissues,  and  because  the  force  in  one  direction  upon  the  surface  of  our 
bodies  is  equally  resisted  in  another,  though  it  is  so  enormous  that  ;i  man 
of  ordinary  size  sustains  a  weight  of  nearly  fifteen  tons. 

The  atmosphere  is  subject  to  a  law  which  characterizes  all  elastic 
fluids,  namely,  it  presses  equally  on  all  sides;  and  when  any  portions 
become  lighter  than  the  others,  the  denser  portions  rise  into  their 
place  and  force  them  to  seek  a  rarer  medium,  always  creating  a  cur- 
rent from  the  point  of  greatest  to  that  of  least  pressure.  When  the 
disturbing  cause  is  local,  transient,  and  irregular,  partial  derangement 
ensues  on  account  of  the  action  necessary  to  cause  a  speedy  adjustment. 
But  as  the  local  disturbances  are  always  as  much  wanting  on  one  side  as 
they  are  in  excess  on  the  other,  they  are  equivalent  to  undulations  of 
the  same  medium.  Their  balance  will  still  maintain  an  equality  of  pres- 
sure, and  whatever  may  be  the  disturbing  causes,  the  restoration  of  the 
equilibrium  is  the  object  of  all  the  motions  excited. 

In  the  free  atmosphere  its  own  weight  is  a  compensating  force,  con- 
sequently its  weight  and  elasticity  both  diminish  in  ascending  from  the 
ocean  level. 

The  atmosphere  rotates  with  the  earth  upon  its  axis,  and  consequently 
in  its  upper  regions,  and  over  the  equator  especially,  it  is  hurled  with 
incalculable  swiftness  and  to  the  utmost  degree  of  attenuation.  More- 
over, penetrated  by  the  sun's  rays  and  in  conjunction  with  the  heat  of 
the  earth,  it  is  rarefied  and  acquires  endless  motion  near  the  earth's  sur- 
face, which  gives  rise  to  winds  varying  in  force  from  the  gentlest  breeze 
to  the  raging  tornado. 

The  special  movements  caused  by  the  action  of  the  Avinds  and  tem- 
pests are  limited  in  their  height,  and  varied  in  their  intensity  by  the 
effect  of  the  seasons  and  the  altitude  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  But  so 
complete  is  the  agitation  by  the  continual  disturbance  going  on  in  the 
lower  regions  by  these  forces,  that  no  difference  has  ever  been  discovered 
in  the  chemical  components  of  the  air  at  the  various  elevations  at  which 
it  has  ever  been  possible  to  collect  it  for  analysis. 

The  decreasing  weight  of  the  atmosphere  at  increasing  height,  as 
measured  by  the  barometer,  has  afforded  the  means  of  calculating  its 
approximate  limits. 

"By  means  of  this  decrease  in  the  density  of  the  air  in  proportion  to 
its  height,  Biot  has,  by  an  examination  of  the  physical  conditions  of  equi- 
librium and  a  complete  discussion  of  the  observations  obtained  at  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  altitude  by  Gay-Lussac,  Humbolt  and  Boussingault, 
demonstrated  that  the  minimum  height  of  the  atmosphere  is  16,000  feet  or 


6  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

about  thirty  miles.  At  that  height,  the  air  must  be  as  rarefied  as  beneath 
the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump;  that  is  to  say,  as  rarefied  as  the 
nearest  approach  to  a  vacuum  that  we  can  make." ' 

The  decreasing  density  with  altitude  is  so  rapid  that  four-fifths  of  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  is  within  eight  miles  of  the  surface  of  the  earthy 
leaving  one-fifth  only  for  the  remaining  thirty-seven  miles  of  altitude, 
and  so  much  rarefied  that  at  the  utmost  limit  one  cubic  inch  is  estimated 
to  have  expanded  to  12,000  cubic  inches. 

The  decreasing  density  is  well  illustrated  by  the  boiling-point  of 
water,  which  at  the  level  of  the  sea  is  212°  F.  By  decreasing  the  pres- 
sure on  the  surface  of  the  water,  which  is  readily  done  by  placing  it  under 
an  air-pump,  the  boiling-point  is  lessened  in  proportion  as  the  superincum- 
bent weight  of  the  air  is  removed;  as  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  may 
also  be  overcome,  and  the  pressure  proportionally  lessened  by  ascending  a 
mountain.  Professor  Tyndall  states  that  the  boiling-point  of  water  on 
Mont  Blanc  (at  the  altitude  of  16,000  feet)  is  184.95°  F.,  or  27°  below 
that  of  the  sea-level — a  decrease  of  one  degree  for  every  596  feet  of 
ascent.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  pressure  be  increased,  the  boiling- 
point  will  be  raised.  It  has  been  found  that  by  doubling  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  making  it  30  pounds  to  the  square  inch  of  surface,  the  boiling- 
point  of  water  is  raised  to  294.5°  F. 

'"The  Atmosphere."  Translated  from  the  French  of  Camille  Flammarion. 
Harper  &  Bros.     P.  31. 


CHAPTER   III. 

TILE    COMPOSITIOX     OF     THE    ATMOSPHERE.— ITS     PER- 
M  ANENT    CONSTITUENTS. 

OXYGEN    AND    ITS    PROPERTIES— OZONE?— PRODUCTION,    DISTRIBU- 
TION,   AND    PROPERTIES— TESTS    AND    USES;    NITROGEN. 

The  composition  of  the  atmosphere  mainly  consists  of  two  permanent 
gases — oxygen  and  nitrogen,  in  the  proportion  of 

Oxygen 23  parts  in  weight ;  20.8  in  volume 

Nitrogen 77     "       "        "  79.2"        " 

Oxygen  is  the-life-sustaining  element  of  the  atmosphere.  In  its 
separate  state  it  is  a  little  heavier  than  common  air:  specific  gravity, 
compared  with  air  as  unity,  1.1056.  It  is  colorless,  transparent,  and  with- 
out odor;  soluble  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  about  five  per  cent  by 
volume,  and  by  pressure  to  a  much  greater  extent.  Submitted  to  ani- 
mals, they  breathe  it  at  first  with  evident  delight.  It  greatly  excites 
them,  but  quickens  the  vital  processes  to  such  a  degree  as  to  throw  them 
into  a  state  of  fever,  and  finally  kills  them  by  excess  of  excitement. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  an  animal  be  placed  into  the  residue  of  the 
air — that  from  which  the  oxygen  has  been  abstracted — it  suffocates  in- 
stantly, without  the  power  to  take  a  single  breath. 

If  a  lighted  candle  be  placed  in  pure  oxygen,  it  burns  with  greatly 
increased  brilliancy  and  rapidity,  and  so  of  all  other  combustible  sub- 
stances; but  where  there  is  no  oxygen  they  will  not  burn  at  all. 

Such  experiments  show  that  oxygen  is  absolutely  necessary  to  sustain 
life,  and  to  support  combustion;  and  that  without  the  presence  of 
oxygen  there  can  be  no  life  or  heat. 

Oxygen  possesses  the  property  of  readily  combining  with  other  sub- 
stances, by  a  process  called  oxidation,  which  is  analogous  to  combustion. 
It  is  in  virtue  of  this  property  that  wherever  oxygen  has  free  access  to 
dead  organic  matter,  the  destruction  of  such  matter  is  greatly  promoted, 
and  putrefaction  prevented. 

To  this  specially  active  property  of  oxygen,  under  certain  circum- 
stances and  influences,  or  rather  to  oxygen  in  an  exalted  state  of  activity 
is  given  the  name  of  ozone. 

Ozoxe  seems  to  have  been  recognized  by  the  ancients,  though  with- 
out any  knowledge  of  its  nature.     Jupiter  is  said  to  have  struck  a  ship 


8  THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE 

with,  a  thunderbolt  "quite  full  of  sulphurous  odor"  {Odyssey,  B.  XII.,. 
v.  417,  and  XIV.,  v.  307);  to  have  "hurled  a  bolt,  with  the  flame  of  the 
burning  sulphur,"  into  the  ground  before  Diomedes'  chariot  {Iliad,  VIII., 
135);  and  "  Ajax  hurls  a  rock  at  Hector,  who  falls  like  a  mountain  oak 
struck  by  lightning,  which  lies  uprooted,  and  from  which  the  fearful 
smell  of  smoking  sulphur  arises"  {Iliad,  XIV.,  415). 

Ozone  was  first  particularly  described  about  a  century  ago  by  Van 
Mavurn,  but  its  nature  was  not  discovered  until  in  1839  by  Schonbein, 
of  Basle,  the  inventor  of  gun-cotton,  while  engaged  in  some  experiments 
on  the  decomposition  of  water  by  voltaic  electricity.  He  showed  that  the 
odor  was  produced  by  the  oxygen  evolved  at  the  positive  pole  during  the 
decomposition  of  water  by  the  voltaic  pile.  His  subsequent  experiments, 
confirmed  by  other  chemists,  have  established  the  conclusion  that  Ozone 
is  an  " electricized "  or  "active  oxygen." 

Dr.  Cornelius  Fox,  in  his  work  on  Ozone  and  Antozone,  sums  up  the 
researches  on  the  nature  and  properties  of  Ozone  as  follows: 

"  Ozone  is  simply  a  condensed  or  allotropic  form  of  Oxygen,  and  that 
they  (Oxygen  and  Ozone)  are  mutually  convertible,  the  one  into  the  other, 
without  the  production  of  any > other  body.     Ozone  may  be  prepared: 

1.  By  passing  through  oxygen  or  air  a  number  of  electric  sparks. 
Many  apparatuses  have  been  constructed  for  producing  ozone  in  this 
manner.    • 

2.  By  the  electrolysis  of  acidulated  water.  Baumert  obtained  by  the 
electrolysis  of  water  acidulated  with  Sulphuric  Acid  .0154  grain  of  ozone 
in  150  litres  (9,150  cubic  inches)  of  odorous  oxygen;  and  the  same- 
amount  in  10  litres  (610  cubic  inches)  when  Chromic  Acid  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  Sulphuric  Acid. 

3.  By  placing  a  stick  of  Phosphorus  scraped  clean  in  the  bottom  of  a 
vessel  of  air  containing  sufficient  tepid  water  to  half  submerge  it.  After 
the  lapse  of  an  hour  or  two,  the  production  of  Ozone  attains  its  maximum. 
The  Phosphorus  should  then  be  withdrawn,  and  the  inclosed  air  well' 
washed,  to  remove  the  Phosphoric  Acid.  If  the  Phosphorus  be  allowed 
to  remain,  the  Ozone  by  degrees  disappears,  owing  to  the  combination 
of  the  metalloid. 

4.  Ozone  is  formed  by  the  action  of  strong  Sulphuric  Acid  upon 
Potassium  Permanganate.  Bottger  '  mixes  very  gradually  three  parts  of 
the  acid  with  two  parts  of  the  salt.  The  mixture,  he  states,  will  con- 
tinue to  give  off  Ozone  for  several  months.  This  mode  of  preparing 
Ozone  is  preferred  by  me  for  the  purification  of  the  air  of  hospitals,  halls- 
for  public  assemblies,  etc. 

5.  By  dispersing  water  in  a  pulverized  form  through  the  air. 

6.  By  the  introduction  of  a  hot  glass  rod  into  a  vessel  of  air  through. 
which  the  vapor  of  ether  has  been  diffused.     The  preparation  of  ozone 


1  Zeitschrift  fur  Chem.  und  Pharm.,  Bd.  iii.,  S.  718. 


Till-:    COMPOSITION    01     I  III.     \  l  BIOSPHERE  9 

in  this  manner  Is  Bomewhal  troublesome,  on  accounl  of  the  difficult] 
perienced  In  obtaining  the  proper  temperature.     If  the  rod  is  not  suffi- 
ciently heated,  no  ozone  will  be  generated,  and  if  it  ia  too  hut.  any  that 
niiiv  have  been   Formed   will   be  immediately  converted   into  common 

gen.  The  formation  of  ozone  in  this  case,  as  in  thai  where  it  is  pro- 
duced by  clean  moist  phosphorus,  appears  to  be  simultaneous  with  the 
partial  oxidation  of  the  acting  substance. 

].  By  the  slow  oxidation  from  exposure  to  light  and  air  of  certain 
ethers,  volatile  and  resin  oils,  and  other  bodies  which  have  been  denomi- 
nated "ozone-carriers,"  such  as  sulphuric  ether,  chloroform,  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, leinons.  linseed,  cinnamon,  bergamot,  and  most  essential  oils, 
t'ne  blood-corpuscles,  etc.     These  bodies  are  said  to  absorb  ozone  without 

ibining  with  it.  and  to  possess  the  property  of  yielding  it  up  to  other 
substances.  They  bleach  solutions  of  indigo  and  other  plant-colors,  and 
give  a  blue  color  with  guaiacum  and  iodized  starch  papers.  Some  have 
said  that  these  essential  oils  which  have  undergone  exposure  do  not 
betray  the  presence  of  ozone,  but  of  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  The 
"  turps"  sold  in  the  shops  sometimes  contains  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of 
its  volume  of  one  of  these  oxidizing  principles. 

Dr.  Day,  of  Geelong,1  has  advocated  the  employment  of  one  of  these 
" ozone  carriers''  for  .sanitary  purposes.  He  recommends  that  the  shirts, 
blankets,  bed-clothing  and  bandages  of  the  sick  be  sprinkled  with  an 
ether  which  has  undergone  this  process  of  oxidation. 

The  various  kinds  of  ethers  differ  much  with  respect  to  the  amount 
of  ozone  contained  in  them,  as  the  following  table  will  show: 

TABLE. 


Ethers,  etc. 


1.  Ether  at  least  ten  years  old 

2.  Commercial  methylated  ether 

3.  Methylated  absolute  ether 

4.  Refined  methylated  ether 

5.  Absolute  ether  (aether  purus),  P.  B. 

6.  Dr.  Richardson's  ozonic  ether.. . . 

7.  Another  spec,  of  absolute  ether. . 

8.  A  third  spec,  of  absolute  ether  (re- 

cently made) 

9.  Rectified  spirit 

10.  Chloroform 


Reaction-  with  red  and  blce 
Litmus. 

Ozoxe 

Tests. 

Iodide  of 
Potassium. 

Iodized 

Starch. 

Slightly  acid 

Neutral 

No.     9 
3 
4 
3 
10 
11 
4 

h 
0" 

No.  5 
If 

3 

Very  acid 

2 
5 

Very  strongly  acid 

Faintest  trace  of  acidity 
Neutral 

10 
2^ 

2 

J* 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  three  ethers  most  highly  ozoniferous  are 
more  acid  than  the  others.     Suspecting  lest  the  ethers  yielding  decidedly 


Lancet,  February,  1S66. 


10 


THE   COMPOSITION   OF   THE   ATMOSPHERE. 


-acid  reactions  might  contain  some  acid  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  which  de- 
composes iodide  of  potassium  like  ozone,  I  tested  each  of  them  with  a 
sulphate  of  manganese  paper  (which  had  been  colored  by  ozone),  and 
with  solutions  of  the  permanganate  of  potash  and  chromic  acid,  with  the 
following  results: 


Ethers 

(a.) 
Colored  Sulphate  of  Manga- 
nese Test. 

(b.) 

Solution   of    Permanganate 

of  Potash. 

(c.) 

Solution  of 

Chromic  Acid. 

1.  Old  ether. . 

5.  Ab  solute 
ether. 

6.  Dr.    Rich- 
ardson'sozo- 
nic  ether. 

Color  slightly  increased . . 
do. 

Color  changed  to  brown, 
do. 

Complete  bleaching 

Unchanged, 
do. 

Blue      color 
produced. 

Pure  peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  characterized  by  the  property  of  bleach- 
ing the  peroxide  of  manganese  and  permanganate  of  potash  tests,  and 
of  forming  a  blue  color  with  chromic  acid.  The  numbers  1  and  5  ethers, 
like  ozone,  behave  in  a  manner  quite  different  when  submitted  to  a  and 
1)  tests,  and  are  quite  unable  to  exhibit  the  beautiful  blue  tint  with 
chromic  acid. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  action  of  Dr.  Eichardson's  ozonic  ether  on 
the  iodide  of  potassium  tests  is  due  to  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen  which 
has  doubtless  been  mixed  with  it.  As  ozone  is  superior  as  an  oxidizing 
agent  to  oxygenated  water,  the  old  ozonif erous  ethers  are  to  be  preferred. 
Exposure  to  air  and  light  seems  alone  necessary  for  the  ozonization  of 
ethers.  This  change  may  be  easily  effected  by  exposing  to  the  light  a 
small  quantity  of  ether  at  the  bottom  of  a  very  large,  well  corked 
bottle. 

As  deodorizers  and  disinfectants,  ozoniferous  ethers  are  very  useful 
to  physicians  and  nurses  in  their  attendance  on  the  sick.  They  should 
be  sprinkled  over  handkerchiefs,  garments,  and  the  bed  linen  of  fever 
cases.  Their  employment  in  the  wards  of  hospitals  is  highly  desirable. 
As  those  which  should  be  alone  employed  for  sanitary  purposes  are  ex- 
tremely powerful,  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  a  very  small  quantity  at  a 
time.  A  drop  or  two  of  either  of  the  ethers  numbered  1  and  5  allowed 
to  moisten  a  handkerchief,  in  which  an  iodide  of  potassium  test  has  been 
wrapped,  very  rapidly  colors  it. 

8.  Ozone  is  said  to  be  produced  by  the  addition  of  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  to  the  binoxide  of  barium,  also  during  the  combustion  of 
hydrogen,  carbide  of  hydrogen,  and  of  kindred  gases,  and  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  fermentation  and  putrefaction.  Whenever,  in  fact,  a  chemical 
reaction  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  atmospheric  air,  oxygen  is  said  to 
be  ozonized.  .  .  . 


THE    COMPOSITION    OK    Till:    ATMOSPIIKUK.  11 

Tin:  Peopebtieb  of  Ozoxe. — "Ozone  Is  insoluble  in  solutions  of  the 
adds  and  alkalies,  in  alcohol,  ether,  essential  oils,  and  in  water.  It  quickly 
purifies  the  last-named  fluid  if  charged  writh  any  organic  matters.  .  .  . 

It  acts  on  most  substances  as  an  oxidizing  agent  of  great  power,  con- 
verting indigo  and  isatin,  the  black  sulphide  of  lead  into  the  white  sul- 
phate of  lead,  and  the  yellow  ferrocyanide  into  the  red  ferricyanide  of 
potassium.  The  metals,  arsenic,  antimony,  iron,  manganese,  zinc,  tin, 
lead,  bismuth,  silver,  and  mercury,  are  oxidized  by  ozone.  It  also  trans- 
forms many  of  the  lower  oxides  into  peroxides.  Schonbein  states  that 
nitrites  can  be  changed  into  nitrates  by  ozone  only,  whilst  antozone  and 
neutral  oxygen  have  no  action  on  these  salts. 

It  deoxidizes  or  reduces  a  small  class  of  bodies,  such  as  the  peroxides 
of  hydrogen  and  barium  which  become  water  and  baryta  respectively, 
being  at  the  same  time  itself  converted  into  oxygen.  When  brought 
into  contact,  under  certain  circumstances  with  ammonia,  it  forms,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Wood,  a  specific  compound  or  salt — an  ozonide  of  ammo- 
nium. 

Its  corrosive  powers,  and  its  property  of  destroying  most  organic  sub- 
stances are  remarkable.  In  its  concentrated  state  it  possesses  bleaching 
properties  superior  to  chlorine.  The  experiments  cf  Baumert,  Schon- 
bein, and  Gorup-Besanez  show  that  wood,  straw,  cork,  starch,  vege- 
table colors,  caoutchouc  pure  and  vulcanized,  the  fats  and  fatty  acids, 
alcohol  and  albumen,  are  oxidized  by  this  agent. 

Ozone  is  thought  by  some  to  be  absorbed  by  the  blood-corpuscles  with 
great  rapidity,  oxygen  being  liberated.  Kiine,  on  the  contrary,  is  of 
opinion  that  the  blood-globules  ozonize  the  oxygen  with  which  they 
come  into  contact,  without  themselves  undergoing  any  change. 

Ozone  possesses  the  power  of  destroying  by  oxidation  the  putrid  ex- 
halations, such  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  etc.,  from  decomposing 
organic  matters.  In  illustration  of  its  deodorizing  and  purifying  effects, 
the  following  experiment  was  performed  by  Drs.  Wood  and  Richard- 
son. In  1854,  a  pint  of  the  blood  of  an  ox  coagulated  was  exposed  to 
the  air  until  it  was  quite  putrid,  and  the  clot  was  softening.  At  the 
close  of  the  year,  the  clot  having  undissolved  as  a  result  of  alkaline  de- 
composition, the  blood  was  a  most  offensive  fluid.  In  1862,  the  fluid 
was  found  to  be  so  offensive  as  to  produce  nausea  when  the  gases  evolved 
from  it  were  inhaled.  Drs.  Wood  and  Eichardson  subjected  it  to  a 
current  of  ozone  from  Siemens'  apparatus.  Gradually  the  offensive  smell 
passed  away,  and  the  fluid  mass  became  quite  sweet.  The  dead  blood, 
moreover,  coagulated  as  the  products  of  decomposition  were  removed, 
and  this  so  perfectly,  that  the  new  clot  exuded  serum. v ' 

The  tests  for  ozone  are: 

1  Ozone  and  Antozone.  Their  History  and  Nature.  By  Cornelius  B.  Fox,  31. D. 
Edin.,  Member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  etc.  London:  J.  &  A. 
Churchill,  pp.  29,  30. 


12  THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

1.  (Schonbein's)  Take  of  pure  iodide  of  potassium 1  part. 

Starch 10  parts. 

Distilled  water 200     " 

Boil  together  gently  for  a  few  minutes;  and  saturate  slips  of  white, 
unsized  bibulous  paper  in  the  liquid.  Dry  them  away  from  light  and 
air.  When  used  they  must  be  sheltered  and  shaded  from  sunlight  and 
rain.  Acted  upon  by  ozone,  the  pajjer  will  be  changed  from  white  to 
violet.  To  bring  out  the  color  fully,  dip  tbe  test  paper  into  water  at  the 
end  of  the  experiment,  and  compare  the  shade  with  the  color  scale  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose. 

2.  (Fremy's).  Soak  white  bibulous  paper  in  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
guaiacum,  and  dry  in  the  dark.  Exposed  to  an  ozonized  atmosphere, 
the  paper  will  acquire  a  blue  color. 

3.  Moisten  a  strip  of  white  bibulous  paper  in  a  solution  of  pyro- 
gallic  acid;  when  exposed  to  an  ozonized  atmosphere,  it  is  rapidly  dark- 
ened. Negative  test.  Ozone  is  present  in  the  air  when  Condy's  fluid, 
diluted  with  distilled  water  and  exposed  to  it,  does  not  change  color. 

A  paper  on  the  "Atmospheric  Ozone,  and  the  Best  Methods  for  its 
Observation/'  by  A.  W.  Nicholson,  M.D.,  published  in  the  Michigan 
State  Board  of  Health  Report  for  1880,  contains  the  following  practical 
observations: 

"  The  principal  experiments  conducted  by  myself  have  been  to  de- 
termine the  presence  of  ozone  in  dwellings,  and  the  probable  influences 
affecting  such  test;  to  determine  the  relative  amount  of  ozone  in  pine 
forests,  compared  with  observations  taken  in  the  open  country;  to  ascer- 
tain the  relative  amount  of  the  same  element  by  experiments  conducted 
in  the  smoky  atmosphere  in  proximity  to  a  large  number  of  "  pits  "  for 
the  manufacture  of  charcoal;  to  estimate  the  amount  of  ozone  existing 
over  swamps;  and  to  compare  the  amount  of  the  same  by  the  exposure 
of  tests  at  the  differing  elevations  of  four  feet  and  fourteen  feet  from  the 
ground.  Experiments  were  also  made  with  regard  to  the  influence  of 
decomposing  animal  excreta  upon  the  test,  compared  with  tests  made 
one  hundred  feet  distant  from  the  first,  or  from  any  such  element  of 
contamination.  Observations  also  were  made  to  determine  the  effect  of 
excess  of  humidity  upon  the  test;  and,  lastly,  to  determine  the  differ- 
ence in  the  quantity  of  active  oxygen  present  in  the  atmosphere  of  a 
malarious  region  with  that  of  an  atmosphere  in  a  non-malarious  region, 
the  same  test  being  employed  in  both  localities,  and  the  observations 
being  taken  at  the  same  hours  of  the  day. 

"  Many  of  these  observations  may  be  but  repetitions  of  those  made  by 
other  observers,  but  the  information  already  obtained  is  only  sufficient 
to  act  as  an  incentive  to  other  investigators  to  continue  their  labors  in 
this  direction.  If  there  is  no  veritable  connection  between  the  varying 
proportions  of  ozone  or  active  oxygen  and  health  or  disease,  inquiry 
should  be  continued  until  the  proof  of  this  fact  is  substantiated.     If 


THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


L3 


there  is  a  relation,  though  slight,  thi  solution  of  the  problem  is  worthy 

Of  the  most  nut  [ring  study. 

■•  In  experimenting  to  determine  the  proportion  in  the  atmosphere  of 
oxidizing  elements  bearing  a  relation  to  health  and  disease,  it  does  not 
seem  necessary  to  employ  a  tesi  thai  will  verify  only  the  existence  of  a 
single  Factor  like  that  of  ozone.  Oxygen  in  a  Btate  of  activity,  whether 
generated  by  electrical  or  other  influences,  from  oxygen  in  a  oascenl 
condition,  or  from  products  that  easily  liberate  oxygen  in  a  Btate  of 
activity,  like  the  essential  oils,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  or  resinous  com- 
pounds, is  the  desired  factor  to  he  searched  after  by  the  sanitarian  and 
etiologist.  If  the  test  detects  compounds  that  in  themselves  produce  a 
coloration  of  the  test  paper,  it  appears  equivalent  to  a  determination  of 
an  equal  amount  of  active  oxygen. 

"  Is  ozone  to  be  discovered,  as  existing  in  dwellings  ? 

••  .Max  von  Pettenkofer.  of  Munich,  in  an  article  in  the  Contemporary 
Review,  entitled,  'The  Hygienic  Influence  of  Plants.'  makes  the  fol- 
lowing assertion  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  ozone  to  the  appearance  or 
disappearance  of  disease:  '  But  one  fact  which  was  observed  from  the 
first  shows  that  it  cannot  be  so;  for  the  presence  of  ozone  can  never  be 
detected  in  our  dwellings,  not  even  in  the  cleanest  and  best  ventilated. 
Now,  as  it  is  a  fact  that  we  spend  the  greater  part  of  our  lives  in  our 
houses,  and  are  better  than  if  we  lived  in  the  open  air,  the  hygienic  value 
of  ozone  does  not  seem  so  very  great.' 

"Such  a  declaration,  proceding  from  such  an  influential  origin, 
would,  if  erroneous,  lead  to  many  false  deductions.  That  it  is  incorrect, 
the  succeeding  exhibit  of  the  results  of  observations  taken  by  himself, 
appears  to  prove.  The  observations  were  made  with  Schonbein's  test, 
moistened  before  exposure.  The  apartment  where  the  experiments  were 
made  was  well  constructed,  and  a  free  circulation  from  the  external  air 
permitted,  when  there  was  the  greatest  coloration,  allowing  motion  to 
the  air  and  access  of  moisture.  Where  least  coloration  occurred  every 
avenue  to  the  external  air  was  closed  as  much  as  possible. 

EXHIBIT  A. 


Date. 

Internal  Observation. 

Extkrnal  Observations. 

Remarks. 

1880. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

June   10.. 
"      11.. 
"      12.. 
"      13.. 
"      14.. 

6" 
i 

2 

1 

1 
1 
2 
2.5 

1 

i" 

2.5 
3.5 
3.5 

3.5 
3 
3 
3 

3 

3.1 

All  numbers  correspond  to 
scale    of    10    degrees   of 
coloration. 

Strong  wind. 

Average .. 

1 

1.5 

2.9 

14  THE   COMPOSITION    OF   THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

"  During  the  winter,  in  a  north  room  of  my  own  dwelling,  where  an 
effort  was  made  to  exclude  the  factor  of  ventilation,  a  coloration  of  three 
degrees  was  obtained.  The  temperature  of  the  room  was  fifteen  degrees 
Fahr.,  and  a  strong  wind  was  blowing  from  the  north.  Externally  a 
coloration  of  nine  degrees  was  obtained.  At  the  same  time,  in  another 
north  room  of  the  same  house,  where  the  temperature  amounted  to 
seventy  degrees  Fahr.,  a  distinct  trace  was  discernible.  At  another 
time,  when  the  external  air  was  quiet,  there  was  obtained  one  degree  of 
coloration  in  the  first  room,  where  the  temperature  was  forty-five  degrees 
Fahr.,  and  in  the  second  room  no  coloration,  with  a  temperature  of 
seventy  degrees  Fahr.  These  results  would  suggest  that  a  certain 
amount  of  motion  of  the  air  exceeding  that  usually  existing  in  dwell- 
ings would  be  auxiliary  to  conditions  producing  a  manifestation  of  the 
presence  of  ozone  therein.  That  the  excess  of  moisture  externally  over 
that  in  the  interior  of  dwellings  is  not  a  factor  to  be  considered,  seems 
proved  by  experiments  made  by  the  writer  in  regard  to  effects  of 
moisture  on  the  test  as  existing  in  dwelliugs.  It  was  found  that  in 
rooms  ventilated,  when  the  external  air  was  not  disturbed  by  the  influ- 
ence of  storms,  the  amount  of  moisture  (absolute  humidity)  internally 
was  equal  to  the  amount  of  moisture  externally,  and  that  there  was 
sometimes  an  excess  of  moisture  in  the  interior  of  a  dwelling  over  that 
the  exterior,  when  the  amount  of  ozone  was  slight  or  entirely  absent  in 
dwelling. 

"  It  is  probable  that  sunshine  is  a  condition  aiding  the  production  of 
ozone  in  dwellings,  as  more  ozone  was  present  during  the  day  than  night. 

"Prof.  R.  C.  Kedzie  says:  '  Ozone  is  doubtless  formed  in  every  sun- 
lit room,  and  by  its  formation  and  destruction  avast  amount  of  materies 
morbi  may  be  destroyed,  and  it  is  no  satisfactory  proof  that  it  is  of  no 
worth  or  influence  because  no  residual  ozone  remains  to  act  upon  our 
test-paper.'' 

"  Just  what  influence  upon  the  test  is  that  is  produced  bythe  presence 
of  carbon  compounds,  it  is  difficult  to  express.  That  its  presence  may 
modify  the  results  of  an  experiment  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  ozone 
present  is  possible.  To  determine  if  the  presence  of  pure  carbonic  acid 
would  decolorize  a  slip  of  test-paper,  already  colored  by  exposure,  I 
subjected  a  moistened  slip  to  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid  by  collect- 
ing the  same  over  a  pneumatic  trough.  On  the  gas  being  washed  by 
passage  through  water,  the  color  upon  the  slip  remained  unaltered.  On 
subjecting  it  to  the  influence  of  the  gas  as  it  escaped  unwashed  from  the 
generator,  a  decolonization  immediately  occurred.  This  was  found  to 
be  due  to  the  presence  of  sulphurous  acid. 

"  Smoke  is  an  element  that  will  decolorize  a  slip  of  the  test-paper 
already  charged  with  liberated  iodine.  It  is  probable  that  the  volume  of 
smoke  that  usually,  though  imperceptibly,  escapes  from  the  stove,  con- 
tains some  property,  perhaps  that  of  sulphurous  acid,  that  causes  a  change 


J II  i:  roMl'o.si  i  kin    of  Tin;    \  i  M08PHJ  B  I  5 

in  the  iodine  as  rapidly  as  it  is  liberated,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  a 
colorless  iodate.  To  demonstrate  the  effect  of  gases,  or  smoke,  gen- 
erated by  the  stove,  1  int  roduced  a  glass  I  ube  I  hrough  an  opening  of  the 
stove  into  the  midst  of  burning  coals,  and  into  the  outer  extremity  of 
the  tube  1  placed  some  of  the  test-paper  already  colored  by  the  action 
of  ozone.  The  result  was  a  marked  loss  of  the  color  on  the  paper.  Thai 
this  was  ii<>(  due  to  the  action  of  increased  temperature  was  proved  by 
exposing  a  similar  paper  to  the  action  of  the  .same  temperature  at  other 
points. 

■•  Although  it  is  apparent  that  the  amount  of  ozone  in  dwelling 
actually  less  than  that  in  the  external  air,  it  is  also  true  that  there  e 
agents  that  at  present  prevent  an  accurate  estimate  from  heing  obtained 
by  Schonbein's  test.  That  active  oxygen  hears  to  organic  life — to 
physiological  and  pathological  conditions — some  essential  relation,  is 
a  proposition  yet  open  for  discussion.  To  declare  that  its  presence  in 
dwellings  is  not  proved  is  apparently  an  error.  Even  were  it  absent  from 
dwellings,  that  circumstance  could  not  prove  its  non-relation  to  health 
or  disease.  Without  endeavoring  to  court  discussion  upon  this  import- 
ant subject,  it  seems  plausible  to  the  writer  that  no  oxygen  enters  the 
blood  in  ony  other  state  than  as  active  oxygen.  It  may  be  that  the  large 
area  of  the  alkaline  pulmonary  secreting  surface,  subject  to  the  results 
of  continuous  evaporation,  is  in  a  condition  to  effect  a  generation  of  suf- 
ficient active  oxygen  to  supply  the  blood  with  that  wmich  it  requires. 
The  excess  in  the  external  atmosphere  may  be  of  importance  to  the  indi- 
vidual when  a  decrease  in  the  external  temperature  intuitively  directs 
him  to  take  less  deep  inspirations  than  the  warmer  and  drier  atmosphere 
of  the  dwelling  demanded,  thus  rendering  the  labor  of  the  lungs  less  in 
supplying  a  given  quantity  of  oxygen  to  the  blood.  If  it  should  be  ob- 
jected that  the  ratio  of  active  oxygen  necessary  to  sustain  the  physiolog- 
ical requirements  of  the  blood  is  not  constant,  I  would  inquire  if  the 
ratios  of  most  meteorological  conditions  are  constant. 

"  During  portions  of  the  months  of  March  and  April,  1878,  while  the 
ground  was  frozen,  and  part  of  the  time  overspread  with  snow,  I  secured 
a  record  of  observations  of  the  amount  of  ozone  in  a  small  pine  forest, 
about  eight  miles  distant  from  my  usual  point  of  observation.  The  fol- 
lowing exhibit  represents  the  comparative  amount  existing  at  both  places 
at  the  same  time. 

"  It  is  generally  believed  that  ozone,  or  that  product  nearly  identical 
in  its  nature,  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  exists  in  excess  amidst  coniferous 
vegetation  over  that  found  in  most  other  regions,  but  the  above  exhibit 
presents  results  contrary  to  that  wdiich  ought  to  be  expected  to  exist. 
This  difference  is,  no  doubt,  in  a  great  degree  due  to  the  time  of  year 
being  when  there  was  the  least  development  of  vegetable  products,  to  the 
more  confined  circulation  of  the  air,  and  perhaps  to  excess  of  humidity. 
The  ground  was  low. 


16 


THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 
EXHIBIT   B. 


Pine  Forest.  [ 

Open  Country. 

Pine  Forest. 

Open  Country. 

Date. 

Date. 

1878. 

1878. 

1 

| 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

March    4 

6 

5 

8 

4 

March  20 

4 

5 

5 

3 

5 

6 

5 

6 

4 

"       21.... 

5 

4 

4 

4 

6.... 

6 

5 

4 

5 

"      22.... 

5 

4 

8 

5 

7.... 

6 

5 

10 

8 

"      23... 

5 

5 

5 

5 

8.... 

4 

4 

8 

7 

"      24. . . . 

4 

6 

4 

6 

9.... 

5 

4 

5 

4 

"      25.... 

5 

5 

5 

5 

"      10.... 

5 

5 

8 

4 

"      26.... 

5 

5 

5 

5 

"      11.... 

5 

5 

6 

8 

"      27.... 

4 

4 

8 

5 

"       12.... 

5 

5 

10 

9 

"      28... 

4 

4 

9 

8 

"      13.... 

6 

5 

10 

9 

"      29.... 

4 

5 

8 

4 

"       14.... 

4 

5 

8 

9 

"      30.... 

5 

5 

4 

4 

"       151.... 

2 

4 

1 

4 

"      31.... 

5 

5 

9 

8 

"      16.... 

5 

5 

10 

8 

April      1 .  . . . 

5 

5 

7 

"       17.... 

5 

5 

9 

10 

2.... 

5 

4 

5 

3 

<l      18.... 

4 

5 

9 

8 

3.... 

4 

3 

4 

3 

'•       19.... 

6 

5 

8 

7 

Average. 

4.80 

4.70 

6.93 

5.90 

"During  the  preceding  summer,  in  the  months  of  August  and  Sep- 
tember, I  secured  the  results  of  observations  taken  in  the  same  pine 
forest,  as  represented  in  the  following  exhibit : 


EXHIBIT   C. 


Pine  Forest.    Open  Country. 


Date. 

1877 


Aug.  26 
"  27 
"  28 
"  29 
"  30 
"     31 

Sept.     1 


Night.     Day.     Night.     Day 


Date 

1877. 


Sept.  11. 

"  12. 

"  13. 

"  14. 

"  15. 

"  16. 

"  17. 

"  18. 

"  19. 

"  20. 

"  21. 

"  22. 

"  23. 

"  24. 

"  25. 

Average. 


Pine  Forest. 


Night.      Day 


2.09 


3.13 


Open  Country. 


Night.      Day. 


1.80 


2.16 


1  Frost  on  night  ozonoscope. 

Note.— Night  observations,  from  9  p.m.  to  7  a.m.;   day  observations,  from  7 
a.m.  to  2  p.m. 


THE    (  <>Ml'o-l  I  ION    OF    Till:     UMOSIMIKKK. 


I 


"In  thr  above  exhibit  we  find  a  considerable  difference  in  the  two 
averages  of  night  ozone,  that  found  in  tin-  pineforesl  being  in 
Tin-  variation  in  the  amount  of  ozone  ascertainable  during  the  day  was 
slight.  Were  a  Banitarium  to  be  established  in  the  vicinity  of  a  pine 
forest  for  the  Bake  of  the  salubrity  of  its  immediate  atmosphere,  it  would 
appear  expedient  to  consider  other  elements  liable  to  affect  the  health 

than  ozone  alone. 


EXHIBIT  D. 


Coal  Pitb. 

Open  Country. 

Coal  Pits. 

OI-KN    CODXTBT. 

DATE. 

Date. 

1877. 

1877. 

Night, 

Hay. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night.     Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

a 

3 

2 

4 

Aug.  12 

2 

3 

3 

4 

•    a 

1 

a 

1 

2 

"      13 

2 

:; 

3 

4 

••    8 

1 

3 

1 

4 

"      14.... 

1 

3 

3 

4 

"      4 

1 

2 

0 

3 

"      15 

1 

3 

2 

4 

"      fi 

1 

3 

1 

4 

"      16 

1 

5 

1 

2 

"      6 

2 

4 

4 

4 

2 

3 

1 

3 

41      7 

1 

3 

2 

3 

"      18 

1 

3 

0 

4 

"      8 

1 

4 

3 

3 

"      19 

1 

2 

1 

4 

"      9 

1 

4 

2 

4 

"      20.    ... 

2 

2 

1 

4 

"    10 

2 

3 

3 

4 

"      21 

1 

2 

2 

4 

•  '    ii 

1 

4 

0 

3 

Average 

1.33      3.00 

2.71 

3.57 

"  Exhibit  D  records  the  results  of  observations  taken  in  the  borders  of 
a  pine  forest,  but  in  close  proximity  to  coal-pits,  as  compared  with  those 
taken  at  a  distance  and  free  from,  any  known  cause  of  local  disturbance 
to  the  test.  The  heavy  night  air  at  the  juts  was  surcharged  with  smoke 
that  during  the  daytime  was  less  concentrated.  The  results  of  the  ob- 
servations at  this  point  were,  at  night,  almost  negative,  although  re- 
corded as  one  degree  of  coloration  whenever  a  trace  was  discernible. 
The  negative  results  obtained  here  are  accounted  for  by  the  j)resence  of 
the  discolorizing  carbonaceous  elements  of  the  atmosphere  associated 
with  the  element  of  excess  of  humidity.  It  does  not  seem  unreasonable 
to  conclude  that  the  quantity  of  ozone  present  in  an  atmosphere  subjected 
to  the  above-mentioned  influences  caunot  be  determined  by  the  employ- 
ment of  Schonbein's  test. 

"  During  the  construction  of  these  coal-pits,  in  the  year  preceding 
these  experiments,  the  amount  of  sickness  at,  and  near  to,  them  was 
very  great.  In  a  population  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  fifty,  nearly 
one-fourth  were  simultaneously  afflicted  with  fevers  of  a  periodic  type. 
Clay  and  porous  soils  were  being  overturned  for  the  first  time,  and  large 
belts  of  timber  were  being  felled,  opening  avenues  for  swamps  and 
ponds.  The  greatest  prevalence  of  sickness  was  dr. ring  the  burning  of 
some  of  the  pits  first  constructed.     The  season  during  which  the  obser- 


IS 


THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATM05PHEEE. 


vations  were  taken  was  marked  by  a  diminution  in  the  number  of  cases 
of  fever. 

•  •  Another  month's  observations,  taken  at  the  same  place,  gave  results 
almost  identical  to  those  above  given. 

•'•'  The  following  exhibit  represents  the  comparative  amount  of  ozone 
existing  over  a  swamp  two  miles  from  the  point  where  the  observations 
were  taken  with  which  they  are  compared.  They  were  also  taken  simul- 
taneously with  those  observations  relating  to  the  quantity  of  ozone  ex- 
isting in  a  pine  forest. 

EXHIBIT  E. 


Date. 


Over  Swamp. 


Night.     Day. 


Aug.    26 


a 

■y.i 

1 

it 

30 

1 

" 

31 

4 

Sept. 

1 

0 

" 

2 

0 

" 

3 

0 

»      " 

4 

0 

X 

5 

0 

(t 

6 

0 

CI 

7 

0 

1 i 

8 

0 

« 

9 

0 

pois't    free     from 
such  Influences. 


Date. 


Night. 


Over  Swamp. 


Night.  Day. 


poext    free     from 
such  Influences. 


Night.         Day. 


4   Sept.  10 

4    ••  11 

'  12: 

'  13 

'  14 

'  15 

'  16 

'  17 

'  18 

'  19 

'  20 

'  21 

99 


1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

0 

2 

0 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

1 

1 

2 

5 

1 

4 

1 

Av*ge,   0.44 


1.92 


1.78 


3.1' 


-'•'In  the  above  exhibit  a  great  difference  is  seen  to  exist  between  the 
averages  of  the  two  points  of  observation. 

"  "Whether  this  difference  is  due  to  the  emission  of  gases  destructive 
to  a  laro-e  portion  of  the  atmospheric  ozone  naturally  present,  or  whether 
the  same  interferes  with  a  deposition  of  liberated  iodine,  or  whether 
the  apparent  absence  is  due  to  an  excess  of  moisture  sufficient  to  decol- 
orize the  paper,  are  inquiries  that  can  only  be  determined  by  experi- 
mentation. The  excess  of  humidity  naturally  present  at  such  a  point 
appears  to  offer  some  explanation. 

•'•'  The  experiments  over  the  swamps  were  made  by  suspended  slips  of 
test-paper  about  three  feet  above  the  soil.  They  were  exposed  to  a  free 
circulation  of  the  air.  but  protected  from  the  sunlight.  During  the 
time  these  observations  were  being  taken  the  several  families  residing 
near  the  swamp  suffered  more  or  less  from  frequent  attacks  of  periodic- 
fever. 

'•  With  a  view  to  ascertain  the  comparative  results  of  observations  for 
the  presence  of  ozone  as  it  existed  at   two  different  points  of  elevation, 


THE    <  OMI'OSITION    OK    Till;     A  I  M<  -I'll  ! .1:1  . 


19 


fifty-f our  observations  were  conducted  at  the  elevations  of  four  ami  four- 
teen feel  from  the  ground. 

"The  following  exhibit  contains  the  result  of  these  observations  : 

EXHIBIT  F. 


Higher    Elevation. 

Lower  Elevation. 

Night 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

4 

9 

i 

9 

Rain  all  day. 

8 

8 

9 

i 

Rain  all  day. 

7 

7 

- 

8 

Rain  all  day. 

9 

5 

8 

5 

Rain  in  night. 

4 

4 

8 

6 

Rain  in  morning. 

7 

5 

8 

5 

Rain  all  dav. 

4 

5 

5 

6 

Fair. 

5 

5 

6 

5 

Fair. 

4 

3.5 

4 

3.5 

Fair. 

4 

3.5 

3 

3.5 

Rain  in  night,  paper  lost  color. 

1 

4 

0 

4 

Fair. 

2 

3 

-.2 

3 

Fair. 

3.5 

3.o 

Fair. 

1 

4 

3.5 

4 
5.30 

Fair. 

Average.  . 

4.53 

5.07 

5.50 

"  These  observations  do  not  demonstrate  that  actually  a  greater  quan- 
titv  of  ozone  was  present  in  the  lower  stratum  of  the  air  than  in  the 
upper.  The  variation  of  the  degree  of  moisture  at  the  two  points  may 
lead  to  an  explanation;  yet  the  excess  of  ozone  at  the  lower  plane  seemed 
to  correspond  with  the  presence  of  aqueous  precipitation  and  a  conse- 
quent pulverization  of  the  rain-drops.  This  might  have  led  to  the 
generation  of  ozone  by  increase  of  electrical  influences,  as  spoken  of  by 
Fox  in  his  work  on  'ozone/ 

•  •  At  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Baker,  I  directed  my  attention  to  the 
relative  quantity  of  ozone  existing  near  decomposing  animal  excreta  as 
compared  with  that  found  one  hundred  feet  distant  from  any  such  con- 
taminating influence. 

EXHIBIT  G. 


Impcre  Air. 

Pure  Am. 

Date. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

10 

11 

12 

13     .. 

14 



2.5 
2 
1 
2 

3 
3 

3.5 
8.5 
3 
2.5 

3" 

4.5 
3.5 
2 

3.5 
3.5 

3.5 
3.5 
3 
3 

2.3 

2.9 

3.3 

3.2 

20 


THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


"  Both  ozonoscopes  were  suspended  at  a  distance  of  six  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  both  were  subjected  to  the  influence  of  the  same  degree  of 
atmospheric  humidity.  It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  variation  in  the 
degree  of  coloration  was  due  to  the  exposure  of  one  ozonoscope  to  the 
influence  of  rapidly  oxidizing  effete  material. 

"  In  considering  the  influences  existing  that  might  have  occasioned  an 
error  in  the  results  of  the  observations  recorded  in  the  foregoing  exhib- 
its, none  is  more  apparent  than  that  of  excess  of  moisture.  Some  atmo- 
spheric conditions  associated  with  twenty  observations  where  there 
was  a  total  absence  of  coloration  are  shown  in  the  succeeding  exhibit: 


EXHIBIT 

H. 

No.  of  Case. 

Lowest 
Tempera- 
ture. 

Velocity  of 
Wind— Miles 
per  Hour. 

Relative 
Humidity. 

Remarks. 

1 

44 
37 
34 
32 
32 
32 
32 
25 
41 
45 
44 
57 
44 
44 
44 
59 
46 
49 
25 
57 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
12 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

2 

75 

96.6 

96.6 

96.6 

96.6 

96.6 

96.6 

100 
96.6 

100 

100 

100 
85 

100 

100 

100 
96.6 
96  6 

2 

Cloudy.     Frost  on  test-paper. 
Frost 

3 

4 

Slightly  cloudy. 

Slighty  cloudy. 

Slightly  cloudy. 

Slightly  cloudy. 

Slightly  cloudy. 

Slightly  cloudy. 

75  per  cent  of  clouds.     Heavy  dew. 

Heavy  dew. 

Smoky — 75  per  cent  of  clouds. 

Heavy  dew. 

Heavy  dew.     No  clouds. 

Heavy  dew. 

Heavy  fog — 50  per  cent  clouds. 

Heavy  fog — 75  per  cent  clouds. 

Heavy  dew.     No  clouds. 

Frost.     No  clouds. 

90  per  cent  clouds. 

5 

6  

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 . 

17 

18 

19 

20..     

100 
96.6 

"The  above  cases  represent  nearly  all  those  of  complete  obliteration 
of  color  occurring  during  a  period  of  three  years.  These  all  occurred 
during  the  night  observation.  With  each  case  there  was  nearly,  or 
quite,  a  complete  saturation  of  the  atmosphere  with  moisture. 

"  In  one  hundred  and  forty-three  observations  taken  by  myself  to 
determine  the  relative  value  of  Schonbein's  test  when  exposed  to  the  air 
dry,  and  when  exposed  after  having  been  previously  moistened,  I  dis- 
covered an  excess  of  coloration  in  the  dry  slip  over  that  of  the  wet  slip 
forty  times,  the  largest  excess  being  five  degrees  of  coloration.  During 
these  forty  instances  the  sky  was  covered  with  one  hundred  per  cent  of 
clouds.  In  only  six  instances  in  the  whole  number  of  observations  was 
the  wet  slip  colored  in  excess  of  the  dry  when  there  was  one-  hundred  per 
cent  of  clouds.     When  there  was  less  than  seventy-five  per  cent  of  clouds 


Tin:   COMPOSITION   OF  THE   ATMOSPHERE.  21 

the  moistened  slip  was  more  greatly  colored  than  the  dry.  Wnile  I  ..■ 
one  time  thought  it  possible  thai  Borne  electrical  phenomena  might  be  ;i 
cause  of  the  ozonosoopio  conditions  just  mentioned,  I  am  now  disposed 
to  believe  the  oause  to  bear  relation  more  to  hygrometrio  states  influ- 
enced by  the  varying  percent  of  clouds.  A  dry  -lip  is  exposed  to  the 
influences  of  these  conditions,  and  a  gradual  deposition  of  the  moisture 
apOD  the  same  aids  rather  than  retards  the  coloration.  But  when  a 
moistened  slip  is  exposed  to  the  influences  of  these  conditions  of  the  at- 
mospherej  it  is  liable  to  become  blanched  as  fast  as  the  iodine  is  depos- 
ited. Cornelius  B.  Fox  says:  'If  the  iodide  of  starch  be  so  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  how  does  it  happen  that  these  tests  often  and  rapidly 
become,  when  they  are  wet,  completely  blanched?  If  a  deeply  tinted 
N  egret  ti's  test  be  cut  into  small  portions  and  placed  in  a  little  distilled 
water,  some  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  rendering  the  fragments 
colorless.  Many  hours,  and  perhaps  a  day  or  two,  will  elapse  before  all 
color  is  removed  from  them.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  colored  Negretti's 
test  be  kept  in  a  moist  condition  with  distilled  water,  conducted  to  it 
by  a  fine  thread  of  lamp- wick  or  darning-cotton,  the  color  will  rapidly 
disappear.  In  the  latter  experiment  the  iodide  of  starch  becomes  vapor- 
ized from  the  test/ 

"  It  is  thus  proved  that  in  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  cases  where 
observations  are  taken  with  Sehoubein's  test,  providing  the  same  propor- 
tion of  days  all  cloudy  existed  as  above  illustrated,  tiie  dry  slip  will  ex- 
hibit the  greatest  coloration,  and  in  the  remaining  cases  the  deepest  tint 
would  be  exhibited  by  means  of  the  wet  slip. 

•■  Through  tjie  kindness  of  a  friend  residing  in  Litchfield  County,  of 
the  state  of  Connecticut,  I  was  enabled  to  secure  results  of  ozonometric 
observations  among  its  non-malarious  hills,  during  the  summer  of  the 
year  1878.  The  record  of  these  observations  is  presented  in  the  follow- 
ing exhibit  in  comparison  with  the  record  of  observations  taken  at  this 
point,  where  periodic  fevers  prevail: 

••The  small  quantity  of  ozone  exhibited  for  the  night  in  the  record 
obtained  from  Connecticut  impresses  one  with  the  belief  that  some  atmo- 
spheric conditions  existed  that  failed  to  testify  to  the  actual  amount  of 
ozone  present.  Excessive  moisture  appears  to  have  been  one  of  these 
conditions,  as  reported  by  the  observer  to  me. 

"As  local  conditions  greatly  affect  the  test  for  ozone,  the  observa- 
tions that  might  be  taken  in  other  parts  of  this  mountainous  country 
might  present  results  more  in  unison  with  the  popular  belief  that  active 
oxygen  exists  in  greatest  quantities  amidst  the  mountains. 

"  As  spoken  of,  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  if  it  is  great,  and  the  air  is 
saturated  with  moisture,  will  occasion  a  decolorization  of  the  test-paper 
unless  protected  from  its  influence.  But  if  a  test-paper  be  exposed  to 
the  free  action  of  the  wind  when  the  air  is  not  saturated  with  moisture, 


22 


THE    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 
EXHIBIT  I. 


LlCHTFIELD 

Lichtfield  County, 

Date, 

County;    State 

of  Connecticut 

Otisville, 
Michigan. 

Date, 

State  of  Connec- 
ticut. 

Otisville, 
Michigan. 

1878. 

1878. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

Aug.     6 

4 

5 

3 

3 

Sept.     9 

0 

2 

4 

2 

7 

4 

4 

3 

3 

"     10 

0 

3 

2 

3 

8 

3 

3 

3 

4 

"     11 

0 

4 

2 

2 

9 

4 

6 

3 

4 

"     12 

2 

3 

3 

"      10 

4 

4 

3 

4 

"     13 

1 

3 

4* 

4 

"      11 

3 

4 

1 

1 

"     14 

0 

2 

4 

1 

"      12 

3 

4 

*0 

3 

"     15 

2 

3 

1 

3 

*'      13 

1 

3 

3 

3 

"     16 

0 

2 

5 

3 

«'      14 

0 

2 

4 

3 

"     17 

0 

3 

2 

3 

"      15 

0 

3 

4 

3 

"     18 

o 

3 

3 

3 

"      16 

2 

3 

4 

3 

"     19 

3 

3 

"      17 

2 

3 

1 

3 

"     20 

2' 

2 

3' 

4 

"      18 

2 

4 

1 

3 

"     21 

1 

2 

3 

3 

"      27 

0 

3 

to 

3 

"     22 

2 

3 

1 

3 

"      28 

1 

3 

3 

3 

"     23 

0 

2 

3 

2 

"      29 

1 

3 

4 

4 

"     24 

0 

2 

3 

4 

"      30 

1 

2 

1 

4 

"     25 

2 

3 

3 

3 

"      31 

0 

3 

3 

4 

"     26 

1 

2 

4 

3 

Sept.     1 

3 

2 

3 

2 

"     27 

3 

2 

§1 

2 

"        2 

0 

2 

4 

3 

"     28 

1 

3 

3 

3 

3 

0 

3 

4 

4 

'•     29 

0 

3 

4 

2 

4 

2 

1 

3 

3 

"     30 

0 

2 

4 

2 

"        5 

4 

1 

to 

3 

Oct.       1 

0 

2 

3 

1 

6 

2 

3 

to 

3 

2 

2 

3 

4 

3 

7 
8 

0 
1 

2 
3 

4 
4 

4 

9 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

<3 

Avr'ge 

1.38 

2.82 

2  77 

2.90 

*  Heavy  dew  in  morning. 

f  Great  amount  of  moisture  in  night. 


X  Fog  in  morning. 
§  Frost  in  morning. 


a  greater  coloration  will  often  occur  than  when  p?*otected  from  the  action 
of  the  wind. 


COLORATION"    OF   BOTH    SIDES   OF   THE   TEST-PAPER. 

"Although  Schonbein's  test  is  considered  the  most  reliable  in  use  for 
the  detection  of  ozone,  something  yet  remains  to  be  done  in  order  to 
render  even  this  test  perfect,  exclusive  of  the  effects  of  such  conditions 
as  already  have  been  mentioned. 

"  In  the  manufacture  of  the  test-paper  I  use,  only  one  side  of  it  is  cov- 
ered with  the  preparation  that  by  chemical  alteration  and  change  of  color 
enables  us  to  estimate  the  relative  amount  of  ozone  present.  In  this 
connection  Dr.  H.  B.  Baker  remarks  that  '  some  test-paper  prepared 
in  Germany,  examined  by  me,  seemed  to  be  like  Swedish  filter-paper  ;  it 
was  of  loose  texture,  and  on  exposure  was  soon  colored  on  both  sides 
alike,  but  the  degree  of  coloration  was  more  uniform  under  varying  con- 


THE    COMPOSITION    OF   THE    ATMOSPHKBE.  23 

ditions  than  it  is  on  the  paper  used  by  the  observers  in  Michigan.  The 
loose  texture  pa] ler  seemed  to  be  exceedingly  prone  to  take  on  a  color 
equalling  from  2  to -ion  our  scale,  but  did  oo1  seem  to  be  as  ready  to 
show  shades  above  or  below  those.  On  comparing  i1  with  our  papas,  it 
was  found  to  fade  quicker  after  being  moistened,  and  I  came  to  believe 
that  it  was  not  so  accurate  as  is  ours  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the 
relative  qualities  of  ozone  in  the  atmosphere. '  In  examining  the  test- 
paper,  after  exposure,  I  have  frequently  found  that  the  side  of  the  paper 
upon  which  there  was  none  of  the  preparation,  exhibited  the  greater 
coloration.  To  determine,  if  possible,  the  cause  of  this,  I  recorded  in  a 
series  of  observations,  as  shown  in  the  following  exhibit,  the  degrees  of 
coloration  that  appeared  upon  both  sides  of  the  paper.  In  the  first 
series  the  number  of  observations  was  34.  In  19  of  these  observations 
there  was  the  deeper  coloration  on  the  side  not  having  the  preparation 
on  it.  The  same  degree  of  coloration  occurred  upon  both  side  at  once 
in  13  instances.  There  was  a  deeper  coloration  on  the  side  containing 
the  compound,  of  starch  and  iodide  of  potassium,  twice. 

"Assistant  Professor  F.  S.  Kedzie,  of  the  Agricultural  College,  at 
Lansing,  Mich.,  suggests  that  these  conditions  may  appear  from  the  ex- 
istence of  a  thin  film,  or  tough  pellicle,  sometimes  formed  over  the 
starch  compound,  thus  preventing  the  access  and  ready  action  of  ozone 
in  setting  free  the  iodine  ;  the  degree  of  coloration  varying  according  to 
the  condition  of  the  surface  of  the  test-paper,  and  according  to  certain 
conditions  of  atmospheric  humidity  existing  at  the  time  of  the  exposure 
of  the  test. 

"  It  is  probably  true  that  varying  conditions  of  moisture  have  a 
marked  influence  with  other  influences  producing  the  results  referred  to. 

"  In  sixteen  of  the  nineteen  instances  where  there  was  a  deeper  tint 
on  the  back  of  the  paper,  the  relative  humidity  was  less  than  ninety  per 
cent,  ranging  from  fifty-three  per  cent  upwards.  In  three  instances 
where  there  was  the  deeper  tint  upon  the  back,  the  relative  humidity  ex- 
ceeded ninety*per  cent.  In  only  one  instance  did  the  relative  humidity 
mount  to  one  hundred  per  cent.  In  only  three  instances  out  of  the  fif- 
teen when  the  front  had  a  coloration  equal  to  that  upon  the  back  of  the 
test-paper,  or  a  greater  coloration,  the  relative  humidity  was  less  than 
ninety  per  cent.  In  twelve  instances  when  the  coloration  upon  the  front 
was  equal  to,  or  greater  than  that  upon  the  back,  the  relative  humidity 
exceeded  ninety  per  cent.  In  seven  of  tbe  fifteen  instances  when  the 
degree  of  coloration  on  the  front  was  equal  to,  or  greater  than,  that  upon 
the  back,  the  relative  humidity  was  one  hundred  per  cent.  This  would 
seem  to  prove  that  conditions  of  moisture  have  a  decided  influence  m 
affecting  the  phenomena  in  question. 

"  After  an  exposure  of  the  test-paper  for  a  time  sufficient  to  produce  a 
coloration,  if  there  is  a  deeper  tint  upon  the  back  than  on  the  front  side, 
a  removal  of  a  thin  portion  of  the  starch  from  the  front  will  not  disclose 


24: 


THE   COMPOSITION    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 
EXHIBIT  K. 


First  Series  of  Observations  on  the  Influence  of  Relative  Humidity  upon  the 
Coloration  by  Ozone  of  Both  Sides  of  the  Test-Paper. 


Relative    Humidity.— Per  Cent  op   Saturation  op  tbe 

Coloration. 

Marked    on 

Air  at  the  Beginning  op   the  Exposure  when  the. 

a  Scale  op  lir. 

Coloration  was  as  Specified. 

On  Front  of 

On  Back  of 

All  Observa- 

Greatest Color 

Same  Color  on 

Greatest 
Color  on 

Test-paper. 

Test-paper. 

tions  in  the 
Series. 

on  Front  of 
Paper. 

Both  Sides. 

Back    of 
Paper. 

2 

2 

82.3 

82.3 

1 

2 

95.3 

"95.3 

2.5 

3 

95.3 

95.3 

2 

3 

76.0 

76.0 

2 

3.5 

84.2 

. . . 

84.2 

2.5 

3.5 

76.0 

76.0 

2.5 

3.5 

74.9 

74.9 

2.5 

3.5 

87.1 

87.1 

1 

2 

100.0 

100.0 

3.5 

3 

89.3 

89.3 

1.5 

2.5 

81.4 

'  81 '.4 

3.5 

3.5 

100.0 

'  Voo.o 

3 

3 

100.0 

100.0 

2 

3.5 

76.9 

'  76.9 

2.5 

2 

100.0 

'  Vob.o 

3.5 

3.5 

100.0 

'  100.0 

2 

3 

53.7 

'  53.7 

2.5 

3.5 

87.1 

87.1 

2 

2 

93.2 

"93.2 

3 

3.5 

86.4 

'  86.4 

3 

4 

85.8 

85.8 

2.5 

2.5 

92.6 

92.6 

3 

3 

92.8 

92.8 

2.5 

3.5 

86.6 

'  86.6 

2.5 

3.5 

93.1 

93.1 

3 

3.5 

71.0 

71.0 

3.5 

3.5 

100.0 

'  ibb.o 

3 

3 

94.4 

94.4 

3 

3 

100  0 

100.0 

2.5 

2.5 

95.0 

95.0 

3 

3.5 

85.8 

.... 

"85.8 

3 

3 

80.5 

80.5 

1.5 

2.5 

69.4 

'  69.4 

2.5 

2.5 

100.0 

'  100. 0 

Total.   ... 

85.5 

102.5 

2986.1 

189.3 

1230.8 

1566.0 

Averages . 

2.51 

3.01 

87.8 

94.7 

94.7 

82.4 

as  deep  a  tint  as  there  is  upon  the  back,  nor  will  as  marked  a  coloration 
appear  in  front  until  all  the  starch  is  removed,  when  both  sides  of  the 
paper  exhibit  the  same  degree  of  discoloration. 

"  The  paper  which  is  used  in  preparing  the  test  readily  absorbs  a  por- 
tion of  the  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  contained  in  the  starch  com- 
pound, and  on  exposure  to  oxidizing  elements  exhibits  chemical  change 
as  well  as  the  prepared  starch.     The  difference  in  the  texture  of  the 


THE   0OMPOB1  I  i<>\    01     i  HE     \  I  MOSPB  EKE,  L'., 

paper  itself  from  the  texture  of  the  starch  compound  would  suggesl  the 
existence,  iii  the  paper  and  compound,  of  differing  qualities  for  the  ab- 
sorption of  moisture. 

••An  average  degree  of  moisture  Beems  to  be  a  condition  rendering 
the  paper  saturated  with  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  in  Btarch- 
water  a  more  delicate  tesl  khan  the  starch  and  iodide  of  potassium  test. 
Where  excess  of  moisture  obtains,  the  starch  and  iodide  of  potassium 
test  appears  to  be  the  most  reliable. 

••  The  preceding  exhibit  does  not  contain  an  extensive  series  of  obser- 
vations as  we  would  wish  to  bave  in  order  to  establish  conclusive  evidence, 
but  ws  all  we  bad  at  the  time  of  writing  the  foregoing.  Since  thai 
time  additional  observations  have  been  made,  and  the  results  are  shown 
in  the  following  exhibit  (L). 

••In  the  following  exhibit  (L),  the  statement  of  the  relative  humidity 
is  made  for  the  time  when  the  test-paper  was  put  out  for  exposure.  In 
marly  all  the  eases  where  there  was  less  coloration  on  the  back  of  the 
paper  than  on  the  front,  and  a  relative  humidity  of  less  than  ninety  per 
cent  at  the  time  the  test-paper  was  put  out,  the  relative  humidity  was 
over  ninety  per  cent  when  the  paper  was  compared  with  the  scale,  show- 
ing that  there  was  an  increase  of  moisture  after  the  paper  was  first  ex- 
posed. 

••  When  the  back  of  the  paper  was  the  most  deeply  colored,  and  on  its 
first  exposure  the  relative  humidity  was  more  than  ninety  per  cent  (an- 
other exception  to  the  general  rule),  there  was  almost  always  a  consider- 
able decrease  in  the  relative  humidity. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR   IMPROVED    METHODS    OF   OBSERVATIONS. 

"  Xegative  results  obtained  by  the  exposure  of  Schonbein's  test-paper 
in  dwellings  seem  to  be  due  as  much  to  elements  affecting  the  liberated 
iodine  as  to  absence  of  ozone.  This  test,  then,  seems  to  be  of  little  use 
in  determining  the  presence  of  ozone  in  dwellings. 

^Valuable  as  are  the  general  results  of  ozonometric  observations,  it  is 
obvious  that  many  of  them  are  clouded  with  error.  How  to  remove  these 
errors  is  a  subject  important  to  all  those  interested  in  the  study  of 
ozonometry  as  to  its  meteorological,  physiological,  or  pathological  rela- 
tions. Much  study  is  yet  necessary  before  the  best  methods  for  accurately 
estimating  the  quantity  of  ozone  present  at  any  time  in  the  atmosphere 
will  be  determined.  In  the  use  of  Schonbein's  test,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  maximum  results  of  an  observation  where  it  is  necessary  to  guard 
against  excess  of  moisture,  the  exposure  of  a  dry  and  wet  slip  at  the  same 
time  would  appear  to  be  a  proper  method  to  adopt;  also  to  suspend  them 
at  such  points  as  where  the  condensation  of  vapor  would  be  least  liable  to 
occur.  To  make  the  period  of  time  less  for  the  exposure  of  test-paper 
would  be  another  means  to  obtain  maximum  results  of  an  observation. 


'26 


THE   COMPOSITION   OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 
EXHIBIT   L. 


Second  Series  of  Observations  on  the  Influence  of  Relative  Humidity  upon  the 
Coloration  by  Ozone  of  Both  Sides  of  the  Test-paper. 


Relative   Humidity— Per    Cent   of    Saturation    of   the 

Coloration,  Marked   on 

Air  at  the  Beginning    of   the  Exposure  when   the 

a  Scale  of  10°. 

Coloration  was  as  Specified. 

On  Front  of 

On  Back  of 

All  Observa- 

Greatest Color 

Same  Color  on 

Greatest 
Color  on 

Test-paper. 

Test-paper. 

tions  in  the 
Series. 

on  Front  of 
Paper. 

both  Sides. 

Back  of 
Paper. 

3.5 

3.0 

100.0 

100.0 

3.0 

3.5 

85.8 

.... 

85.8 

3.5 

4.5 

75.5 

.... 

75.5 

2.5 

3.0 

86.2 

.... 

86.2 

1.5 

3.0 

83.4 

.... 

.... 

83.4 

4.0 

4.0 

100.0 

.... 

100.0 

3.5 

3.0 

100.0 

100.0 

.... 

5.0 

4.0 

91.3 

91.3 

3.5 

2.0 

85.8 

85.8 

.... 

2.0 

3.0 

74.5 

'74.5 

2.0 

3.5 

75.9 

•  ■  •  • 

'75.9 

3.0 

3.0 

84.0 

'84.0 

3.0 

3.0 

91.4 

91.4 

3.5 

4.0 

83.4 

•  ■  •  • 

83.4 

3.0 

2.5 

83.4 

83.4 

7.0 

3.0 

93.1 

93.1 

.  •  •  • 

3.0 

2.0 

100.0 

100.0 

.... 

.... 

8.0 

3.0 

91.4 

91.4 

.... 

3.0 

2.5 

91.6 

91.6 

4.0 

2.5 

100.0 

100.0 

... 

3.0 

2.5 

100.0 

100.0 

3.0 

3.0 

90.6 

'90.6 

2.5 

4.0 

100.0 

ioo.'o 

3.5 

3.5 

100.0 

166.O 

4.0 

4.5 

79.3 

'79.3 

2.5 

2.5 

92.6 

.  .  •  • 

'92.6 

2.5 

3.0 

84.0 

'84.0 

3.0 

3.0 

100.0 

ioo.'o 

4.0 

3.0 

92.6 

'92.6 

2.0               3.0 

79.3 

'79.3 

2.5 

3.0 

69.6 

96.6 

3.5 

2.5 

93.2 

'93.2 



3.0 

3.0 

100.0 

ioo.'o 

4.0 

3.5 

92.6 

92.6 

3.5 

3.5 

100.0 

166.0 

8.0 

6.0 

100.0                100.0 

6.0 

5?0 

90.5                  90.5 

3.5 

2.5 

100.0                100.0 

3.0 

4.0 

83.4 

'83.4 

Totals 

139.5 

128.5 

3524.8 

1605.5 

933.1 

986.2 

Average . 

3.58 

3.29 

90.4 

94.4 

93.3 

82.2 

\  v    nf 

both     ser. 

3.08 

3.16 

89.2 

94.5 

94.1 

83.2 

"  It  is  well  known  that  by  increased  velocity  of  the  wind  more  ozone 
may  be  carried  to  a  given  point  than  there  would  be  if  the  velocity  were 
less.     To  determine  the  quantity  of  ozone,  therefore,  liable  to  affect  the 


THE   COMPOSITION    OF    THE     LTMOSPHEBE,  27 

health  of  an  individual  subjected  to  the  influence  of  rapid  currents  of  air, 
it  is  desirable  to  expose  the  test-paper  to  the  same  current.  But  the 
of  the  liberated  iodine,  as  ;i  result  of  such  exposure,  suggests  that 
in  order  to  obtain  the  deepest  col  (ration  the  Blip  must  be  protected  from 
too  great  velocity  of  the  wind,  especially  when  there  is  an  excess  of  mois- 
ture in  the  atmosphere." 

\'i  ii;im;i;\  is  a  colorless  gas  without  taste  or  smell,  rather  lighter  than 
oommon  air:  its  specific  gravity  being  0.972.  It  is  slightly  Boluble  in 
water,  and  distinguished  by  its  apparent  want  of  properties.  Ir  will 
neither  support  life  nor  combustion.  A  burning  taper  is  instantly  ex- 
tinguished in  this  gas,  and  an  animal  soon  dies  in  it,  not  because  I  he  gas  is 
injurious,  but  from  the  privation  of  oxygen.  Yet  it  forms  four-fifths  of 
the  hulk  of  the  atmosphere,  and  enters  into  the  composition  of  all  or- 
ganic bodies — not,  however,  always  found  in  vegetable  substances, 
though  it  is  well  known  that  no  plant  can  attain  maturity  without  the 
presence  of  matter  containing  nitrogen.  But  no  animal  body  which  pos- 
sesses motion  is  destitute  of  it.  It  is  an  essential  element  of  food  for  all 
the  purposes  of  nutrition,  and  the  chief  ingredients  of  human  blood  con- 
tain nearly  seventeen  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Yet  it  seems  to  take  no  other 
part  in  the  functions  of  life  than  mere  presence,  the  vital  processes  re- 
quiring this,  however,  for  their  healthy  exercise. 

When  the  mysterious  principle  of  life  has  ceased  to  exercise  influence, 
nitrogen  assumes  a  peculiar  activity,  and  becomes  a  promotor  of  death 
and  decay,  by  escaping  from  the  elements  which  have  held  it  in  abeyance. 
Its  utility  now  becomes  manifest.  Nitrogen  is  emphatically  the  element 
of  death  bound  up  with  the  life  of  the  organism  of  every  living  being. 
During  life  it  is  subject  to  the  control  of  the  vital  forces,  but  no  sooner 
■does  life  cease  than  nitrogen  acquires  a  strong  affinity  with  hydrogen, 
and  combining  with  it  forms  a  new  compound — ammonia.  Oxygen  is 
thereby  disengaged,  and  a  new  set  of  affinities  begins,  converting  what 
would  otherwise  be  a  state  of  rest  into  one  of  commotion  and  change. 
Fermentation  is  excited,  decomposition  and  oxidation  proceed  uninter- 
ruptedly to  a  complete  transformation  of  organic  matter  back  again  into 
its  original  elements. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VAEIABLE   CONSTITUENTS   OF   THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

AMMONIA,     CARBONIC    ACID,    MOISTURE    AND    ELECTRICITY;    AND 
FLOATING  MATTER  IN  THE  AIR. 

NATURE  AND  SOURCES  OF  AMMONIA — ABUNDANCE  AND  PROPERTIES 
—INDICATIONS — PUTREFACTION  AND  ITS  RESULTS — TESTS;  CAR- 
BONIC ACID:  NATURE,  SOURCES,  PROPERTIES,  DIFFUSION,  DAN- 
GERS AND  TESTS  OF;  MOISTURE:  QUANTITY  AND  PROPORTION  IN 
THE  ATMOSPHERE  AT  TEMPERATURES — ABSOLUTE  HUMIDITIES; 
ELECTRICITY;    FLOATING    MATTER   IN   THE   AIR. 

1.     AMMONIA. 

Ammonia  is  a  very  light,  colorless,  gaseous  compound,  which  con- 
sists of  one  equivalent  of  nitrogen  and  three  equivalents  of  hydrogen. 
Its  specific  gravity  or  relative  weight,  when  compared  with  hydrogen, 
the  lightest  of  all  gases,  is  8.5,  or  a  little  more  than  half  that  of  the 
weight  of  atmospheric  air.  It  possesses  a  strong  and  pungent  odor,  fa- 
miliar in  spirits  of  hartshorn,  and  is  distinguished  as  the  volatile  alkali. 
It  exists  normally  in  the  proportion  of  about  three  and  a  half  volumes 
in  every  10,000,000  of  atmosphere.  In  other  words,  in  ten  million  gal- 
lons of  pure  atmosphere,  the  amount  of  ammonia  gas  present  is,  on  an 
average,  not  more  than  three  and  a  half  gallons;  though  it  frequently 
exceeds  this,  and  wherever  it  exists  in  excess  it  is  suggestive  of  impure 
local  conditions. 

Ammonia  is  exceedingly  soluble  in  water,  and  cannot,  therefore  re- 
main long  in  excess  in  the  atmosphere,  especially  in  rainy  places,  as 
every  shower  of  rain  condenses  it  and  conveys  it  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Hence,  rain-water  always  contains  more  or  less  ammonia,  and  it 
is  this  which  gives  to  rain-water  the  apparent  sensation  of  softness  gen- 
erally experienced  in  its  use. 

In  an  address  on  "  Air  as  a  Sanitary  Agent/'  delivered  to  the  Sani- 
tary Institute  of  Great  Britain,  at  Glasgow,  in  September,  1883,  by  Dr. 
E.  Angus  Smith,  the  celebrated  author  of  "  Air  and  Bain,"  the  follow- 
ing practical  remai'ks  are  made  in  regard  to  ammonia: 

"  When  a  room  is  shut  up  even  for  a  day,  unless  the  room  be  very 


VARIABLE   CONSTITUENTS   OF   THE    ATMOSPHERE.  29 

large  indeed,  there  is  always  that  peculiarity  observed  by  sensitive  per- 
sons t<>  which  would  be  gives  the  came  of  closeness.  X*e1  there  are  peo- 
ple who  do  not  seem  to  observe  this,  and  whospend  their  lives  in  rooms 

in  which  this  closeness  may  he  constantly  observed.  I  have  often  re- 
flected on  this  peculiar  condition.  Surely,  if  oxygen  removed  all  impu- 
rities, these  impurities  ought  t<>  have  been  removed,  since  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  is  never  absent  from  the  rooms,  excepl  to  such  a  small  extent  thai 
the  estimation  of  the  change  is  extremely  difficult.  It  we  lift  up  a  win 
dow  and  allow  the  air  to  blow  into  the  room  so  as  to  entirely  replace  the 
original  air,  we  do  not  at  all  times  attain  efficient  aeration.  It  takes  hut 
a  few  mimites,  in  a  climate  where  there  is  considerable  motion  in  the  air, 
to  renew  the  atmosphere  of  a  room  entirely;  we  may  judge  of  this  by 
making  a  trial  upon  a  visible  atmosjmere,  viz.,  one  pretty  well-tilled  with 
smoke.  AVe  see  how  rapidly  with  an  open  windowr  every  trace  may 
be  removed  from  the  farthest  corner,  and  yet  this  new  air  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  refresh  the  room,  and  closeness  is  the  characteristic  still  com- 
plained of.  It  is  the  custom  in  well-regulated  houses  not  to  renew  merely 
the  air,  but  to  cause  the  air  to  blow  through  the  house  for  a  considerable 
time  every  day  when  the  weather  permits  it.  Knowing  this  for  a  long 
time,  I  wondered  very  much  what  was  the  reason.  Surely,  I  said,  there 
was  vital  air  enough  without  the  long-continued  current. 

"  Then  the  remarkable  discovery  of  Schonbein  came  to  my  mind,  as  I 
suppose  it  has  to  the  minds  of  many  other  chemists,  and  I  thought  it 
must  be  the  ozone  in  the  air  that  does  the  work,  and  as  there  is  little 
ozone  in  a  volume,  the  air  requires  many  repetitions  of  bulk.  There 
may  be  some  truth  in  this  still;  but  whether  the  air  receives  imperfect 
contact  with  the  substances  to  be  purified,  whether  the  mechanical  ac- 
tion of  the  current  is  necessary,  or  some  other  cause,  it  is  certain  that 
a  continual  current  is  necessary  for  perfect  purification.  Looking  fur- 
ther at  this  subject,  it  occurred  to  me  that  really  clean  houses  were  pre- 
served in  this  condition  by  something  more  tjian  currents  of  air  gene- 
rally, and  that  good  housewives  resorted  to  the  practical  method  of 
rubbing  by  hand,  and  it  seemed  clear  that  no  furniture  could  be  preserved 
from  that  peculiar  condition  of  mustiness  in  any  house  where  the  doors 
and  windows  must  be  frequently  closed,  unless  the  absolute  removal  of 
certain  substances  from  the  surface  were  resorted  to.  And  what  was 
this  substance  that  required  to  be  removed  ?  I  suppose  it  to  be  one  of 
organic  origin. 

"If  organic  matter  is  everywhere,  the  presence  of  ammonia  is  every- 
where possible;  and  if  that  matter  is  decomposing,  ammonia  is  every- 
where. That  is  the  general  statement  which  this  paper  illustrates.  It 
is  now  many  3'ears  since  it  was  observed  by  me  that  organic  matter  could 
be  found  on  surfaces  exposed  to  exhalations  from  human  beings:  but  it 
is  not  till  now  that  the  full  significance  of  the  fact  has  shone  on  me, 
and  the  practical  results  that  may  be  drawn  from  it  in  hygiene  and  mete- 


30  VARIABLE    CONSTITUENTS    OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

orology.  These  results  are  that  ammonia  may  be  an  index  of  decayed 
matter.  The  idea  has  been  used  partly  and  to  a  large  extent — as  illus- 
trated in  my  '  Air  and  Eain  ; '  the  facts  now  to  be  given  enable  us  to 
claim  for  it  a  still  more  important  place.  The  application  seems  to  fit 
well  the  conditions  already  examined;  and  by  this  means  currents  from 
foul  places  have  been  readily  found.  This  does  not  apply  to  the  sub- 
stances which  may  be  called  germs,  whether  it  be  possible  to  see  them  or 
not,  because  they  are  not  bodies  which  have  passed  into  the  ammoniacal 
stage,  although  some  of  them  may  be  passing— those,  for  example,  which 
are  purely  chemical  and  exert  what  we  may  call  idiolytic  action. 

"Ammonia  must  ever  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  chemical 
compounds.  It  comes  from  all  living  organisms,  and  is  equally  neces- 
sary to  build  them  up.  To  do  this,  it  must  be  wherever  plants  or  ani- 
mals grow  or  decay.  As  it  is  volatile,  some  of  it  is  launched  into  the 
air,  on  its  escape  from  combination;  and  in  the  air  it  is  always  found. 
As  it  is  soluble  in  water,  it  is  found  wherever  we  find  water  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  or  in  the  air,  and  probably  in  all  natural  waters,  even 
the  deepest  and  most  purified.  As  a  part  of  the  atmosphere  it  touches 
all  substances,  and  can  be  found  on  many;  it  is  in  reality  universally  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  in  the  presence  of  men  and  animals,  perhaps  at- 
tached more  or  less  to  all  objects,  but  especially  to  all  found  within 
human  habitations,  and  we  might  also  add,  with  equal  certainty,  the 
habitations  of  all  animals. 

"  If  you  pick  up  a  stone  in  the  city,  and  wash  off  the  matter  on  the 
surface,  you  will  find  the  water  to  contain  ammonia.  If  you  wash  a 
chair  or  a  table,  or  anything  in  the  room,  you  will  find  ammonia  in  the 
washing;  and  if  you  wash  your  hands  you  will  find  the  same;  and  your 
paper,  your  pen,  your  table  cloth,  and  clothes  all  show  ammonia;  and 
even  the  glass  cover  to  an  ornament  has  retained  some  on  its  surface. 
You  will  find  it  not  to  be  a  permanent  part  of  the  glass,  because  you 
require  only  to  wash  with  pure  water  once  or  twice,  and  then  you  will 
obtain  a  washing  Avhich  contains  no  ammonia;  it  is  only  superficial. 

"  This  ammonia  on  the  surface  is  partly  the  result  of  the  decomposi- 
tion, continually  taking  place,  of  organie  matter  adhering  to  everything 
in  dwellings.  The  presence  of  organic  matter  is  easily  accounted  for; 
but  it  is  less  easily  detected  than  ammonia.  It  is  probable  that  the 
chief  cause  of  the  presence  of  ammonia  on  surfaces  in  houses  and  near 
habitations  is  the  direct  decomposition  of  organic  matter  on  the  spot. 
If  so,  being  more  readily  observed  than  organic  matter  itself,  it  may  be 
taken  as  a  test,  and  the  amount  will  be  a  measure  of  the  impurity.  A 
room  that  has  a  smell  indicating  recent  residence  will,  in  a  certain  time, 
have  its  objects  covered  with  organic  matter,  and  this  will  be  indicated 
by  ammonia  on  the  surface  of  objects.  After  some  preliminary  trials, 
seeing  this  remarkable  constancy  of  comparative  results  and  the  beautiful 
gradations  of  amount,  it  occurred  to  me  that  the  same  substance  must 


\  \i;i\i'.u:   CONSTITUENTS   OF   THE     LTMOBPHEBZ.  31 

be  found  on  all  Bubjecta  around  us,  whether  in  town  <>r  uot.     I  there- 
fore wenl  a  mile  from  the  outskirts  of  Manchester,  and  examined  the 

objects  on  the  way.     Stones  thai  not   twenty  hours  before  bad  been 
washed  by  rain  showed  ammonia.     It  is  true  that  the  rain  of  Mane! 
fcer  contains  it  also;   but,  considering  that  only  a  thin  layer  would  be 
evaporated  from  these  stones,  it  was  remarkable  that  they  indicated  the 
existence  of  any.     The  surface  of  wood  was  examined;  pailings,  railic 
branching  of  trees,  grass  (not  very  green  at  the  time),  all  showed  am- 
monia in  no  very  small  quantities.     It  seemed  as  if  the  whole  visibli 
surface  around  had  ammonia.     1  went  into  the  houses  and  examined 
the  surfaces  in  rooms  empty  and  inhabited,  tables,  chairs,  walls,  plates, 
glasses,  and  drawing-room  ornaments.     A   (Parian)  porcelain  statuette 
under  a  glass  showed  some  ammonia;  a  candlestick  of  the  same  material 
(but  uncovered)  showed  much  more.     The  back  of  a  chair  showed  am- 
monia;  when  rubbed  with  a  common  duster,  there  was  very  little.     It 
seemed  clear  that  ammonia  stuck  to  everything. 

"  If,  then,  ammonia  was  everywhere,  the  conclusion  seemed  to  be 
that  it  was  not  at  all  necessary  to  do  as  I  had  been  doing,  namely,  wash 
the  air  so  laboriously;  it  would  be  quite  sufficient  to  suspend  a  piece  of 
glass,  and  allow  the  ammonia  to  settle  upon  it.  For  this  purpose  small 
flasks  were  hung  in  different  parts  of  the  laboratory,  and  examined 
daily.  The  flasks  would  hold  about  six  ounces  of  liquid,  but  they  were 
empty,  and  the  outer  surface  was  washed  with  pure  water  by  means  of 
a  spray  bottle;  it  was  done  rapidly,  and.  not  above  twenty  cub.  centim. 
(two-thirds  of  an  ounce)  of  water  was  used.  This  was  tested  for  ammo- 
nia at  once  with  the  Nessler  solution.  The  second  washing,  taken  imme- 
diately, produced  no  appearance  of  ammonia.  Ammonia  could  be 
observed  after  an  hour  and  a  half's  exposure  at  any  rate;  but  I  do  not 
know  the  shortest  period. 

"  To  me  it  seemed  perfectly  clear  that  the  character  of  closeness  was 
connected  with  the  existence  of  organic  matter,  and  the  organic  matter 
with  the  ammonia.  That  ammonia  should  be  found  almost  everywhere,, 
but  in  small  quantities,  was  not  to  be  wondered  at,  considering  the  uni- 
versal presence  of  organic  matter  in  the  air  and  waters  of  the  world.  It 
was  when  considering  these  things,  the  effect  of  oxygen  on  this  organic 
matter,  that  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  a  current  of  air  either  carried 
away  the  organic  matter  with  it,  decomposing  it  and  turning  it  into 
gases,  or,  if  it  were  not  possible  for  oxygen  alone  to  do  this,  it  might 
happen  that  the  oxygen  destroyed  those  minute  forms  which  have  been 
shown  to  be  concomitant  with  putrefaction  and  decay.  .  .  . 

"  As  putrefaction  seems  not  to  take  place  without  the  action  of 
organisms,  I  had  the  idea  that  it  might  be  arrested  by  an  abundant  use 
of  air,  and  I  had  some  belief  that  the  oxidation  took  place  very  rapidly 
after  putrefaction.  It  was  when  examining  this  subject  that  I  found  it 
necessary  to  touch  also  upon  the  question  of  nitration  in  water.     When 


32  VARIABLE   CONSTITUENTS    OF   THE   ATMOSPHERE. 

nitrogenous  bodies  decompose  with  an  abundance  of  oxygen,  the  nitro- 
gen becomes  oxidized,  and  nitric  acid  is  formed.  I  had  long  suspected 
the  reverse  also  took  place,  and  that  when  there  was  an  excess  of  putre- 
factive matter  oxygen  was  absorbed,  and  even  removed  from  the  nitrate, 
whilst  free  nitrogen  was  given  off.  This  process  I  was  able  to  verify  by 
carrying  it  into  the  laboratory.  It  was  clear  then,  and  beyond  all  cavil, 
that  rivers  could  purify  themselves  in  time,  and  organic  matter  be  thor- 
oughly removed.  It  was  clear  that  organic  substances,  that  germs  of 
disease,  that  microbes,  and  the  smallest  organisms  themselves  were  all 
subjected  to  this  universal  and  unsparing  attack  of  putrefaction  and 
oxidation. 

"Putrefaction  destroys  organic  matter  without  the  influence  of  oxy- 
gen; it  breaks  up  organic  compounds,  and  destroys  organisms.  The 
evidence  seems  to  indicate  that  it  destroys  those  bodies  that  j>roduce  dis- 
ease, but  that  in  certain  conditions  it  produces  others.  This  is  a  point 
not  to  be  enlarged  upon  without  more  knowledge,  but  it  is  evident  that 
by  putrefaction  we  get  rid  of  an  enormous  amount  of  offensive  matter. 
Oxygen  cannot  enter  under  the  surface  of  actively  putrefying  bodies; 
but  wherever  it  is  allowed  to  enter  by  the  putrefaction  being  less  active, 
an  action  begins  which  in  time  completes  the  destruction  of  the  body. 
"We  are  not  therefore  to  suppose  that  the  germs  of  disease  can  resist  all 
these  efforts  of  nature  to  destroy  noxious  things,  nor  are  we  to  suppose 
that  an  invisible  germ  can  pass  from  stage  to  stage  unaffected  by  the 
putrefaction  of  sewage  and  the  action  of  air.  "We  must  believe,  for  the 
present,  that  it  is  not  so.  In  water  we  see  perfect  putrefaction,  nitrogen 
itself  being  lost. 

"In  ordinary  putrefaction  sulphuretted  hydrogen  comes  off  in 
abundance,  with  much  carbonic  acid  and  some  nitrogen.  Oxygen 
resists  this  action,  and  if  this  action  is  applied  in  a  concentrated  condi- 
tion a  change  takes  place;  nitrogen  is  evolved  as  the  principal  gas, 
and  a  decomposition  of  nitrogenous  compounds  takes  place.  Nitro- 
genous bodies  are  thus  destroyed  in  one  manner  by  their  voluntary 
putrefaction,  in  another  by  oxidation.   .   .  . 

<f  Putrefaction  and  oxidation  are  two  well-known  modes  of  destroy- 
ing organic  bodies  at  ordinary  temperatures.  The  second  (oxidation)  is 
not  proved  to  be  connected  with  organisms.  How  far,  then,  can  oxida- 
tion, or  a  great  supply  of  air,  be  employed  to  destroy  putrefaction  or  to 
purify  ? 

"  The  bearing  it  has  on  the  analysis  of  water  will  be  clearly  seen  by 
chemists.  The  bearing  on  the  sewage  question  is  also  interesting.  Sub- 
stances and  living  things  may  be  carried  by  the  rapid  sewage  system 
into  the  range  of  a  new  activity  before  undergoing  the  putrefaction 
which  breaks  them  up  in  proximity  to  us  or  in  the  sewers  them- 
selves. It  seems  to  point  to  a  plan  of  causing  the  destruction  of  organ- 
isms by  putrefaction  and  subsequent  oxidation  or  chemical  action.     At 


1  LBXABLS   C0N8TMIIM-   OF   THE    A.TM08PHXBE.  38 

least  it  Beema  to  me  that  we  require  to  learn  if  it  be  true  that  any  of  the 
germs  of  disease,  or  which  germs  of  disease,  will  lire  in  an  abundance  of 
good  air.  We  know  that  abundant  dilution  will  render  them  all  inef- 
fective It  IB  probable  thai  there  Will  he  a  difference  unionist  them  iii 
this  respect,  whilst  all  will  yield  to  the  double  aetion  of,  first,  putrefac- 
tion, and  then  oxidation.   .   . 

"It  has  often  been  asked,  what  will  become  of  those  many  poisonous 
emanations  which  arise  from  the  human  body  in  health,  and  from  those 
still  more  dangerous  substances  which  are  generated  within  it  during 
many  of  the  multifarious  diseases  to  which  man  is  subjected.  The  germ 
theory  of  disease  has  caused  alarm  in  many  directions,  and  it  has  been 
imagined  that  some  little  germ  of  disease  passing  into  a  sewer  or  pure 
river  might  carry  with  it  power  to  infect  other  organisms  to  such  an 
extent  that  there  was  reason  to  fear  for  the  lives  of  all  the  inhabitants 
on  its  banks.  This  extreme  application  of  a  theory  might  not  be  unrea- 
sonable were  it  not  that  Ave  know  from  results  that  no  such  power  exist- 
in  any  of  those  germs  known  to  us. 

"  Let  us  consider  the  number  of  polluted  liquids  which  pass  from  the 
houses  and  hospitals  of  such  a  city  as  Glasgow,  and  the  fact  that  so  many 
of  its  inhabitants  go  down  to  the  banks  of  the  Firth,  towards  which  the 
waters  of  the  Clyde  flow,  and  receive  there  health  and  strength  for  them- 
selves and  their  families,  and  we  shall  see  how  absurd  the  ideas  have  been 
concerning  the  power  of  individual  germs,  or  even  multitudes  of  germs  in 
such  situations.  .  .  . 

"It  is  remarkable  how  rapidly  sewage  enters  into  putrefaction;  and 
to  know  the  results  of  this  putrefaction  has  been  a  considerable  difficulty. 
The  gases  from  sewers  have  been  found  to  produce  a  peculiar  form  of 
fever,  very  well  known  to  medical  men  in  some  of  its  stages,  and  appa- 
rently so  definite  that  it  may  be  considered  as  ranking  with  one  of  the 
chemical  tests  in  its  strictness.  The  gases  which  come  from  it  are  the 
results  of  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter,  and  the  number  of  com- 
pounds into  which  the  material  of  animals  may  be  broken  up  is  so  varied 
that  at  present  it  may  be  said  to  be  entirely  beyond  our  ken.  These 
■compounds  vary  in  character  to  such  a  degree  that  they  may  form  the 
most  innocent  gases,  the  most  wholesome  food,  or  the  most  virulent 
poisons,  venomous  substances  that  destroy  entirely  vital  functions  of  the 
human  body  in  a  scarcely  appreciable  time.  Some  of  these  obnoxious 
bodies  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  sewage,  and,  as  already  said,  seem 
to  be  formed  at  some  particular  proportion  of  the  supply  of  air. 

"  It  is  easy  to  see  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  by  sending 
putrefying  liquids  down  to  lands  we  are  giving  these  lands  all  the  sub- 
stance which  the  sewage  originally  contained.  If  we  wish  to  use  them  as 
sewage  it  is  better  to  use  them  before  putrefaction,  the  loss  by  putre- 
faction being  great.  I  suppose  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  putrefaction 
3 


34:  VARIABLE   CONSTITUENTS   OF   THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

takes  place  more  rapidly  when  the  organic  matters  are  diluted  to  a  very 
considerable  extent  with  water. 

"  Having  made  many  experiments  in  order  to  find  the  condition  of  the 
air  found  lying  over  somewhat  solid  putrid  substances  compared  with  the 
same  substances  very  diluted  with  water,  it  was  found  that  the  greatest 
amount  of  ammonia  and  the  most  offensive  odors  were  from  the  more 
solid.  This  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  explanation  given  of  the  more 
complete  disruption  of  the  organic  matter  in  water,  and  it  was  these 
experiments  that  led  me  first  to  think  of  driving  the  air  through  sewage 
matter  in  order  to  produce  oxidation,  expecting  readily  to  form  nitrates, 
and  in  the  belief  also  that  the  excess  of  air  would  be  offensive  to  the 
microzymes,  although  a  small  amount  seemed  necessary  for  their 
activity.  .  .  . 

"  The  result  of  the  aeration  of  sewages,  and  of  other  liquids  containing 
organic  matter  to  a  similar  extent,  was,  that  in  all  cases  putrefaction  was 
delayed  by  aeration.  The  dissolved  oxygen  also  recovers  itself  in  the 
aerated  specimens  better  than  in  the  non-aerated.  This  shows  that 
aeration  not  only  prevented  putrefaction,  but  prevented  also  the  chemical 
action  consequent  upon  it.  It  had,  in  fact,  to  a  large  extent,  and  for  a 
considerable  time,  rendered  the  organic  matter  inert,  or  nearly  so.  Ni- 
trates are  formed  also  more  readily  in  the  aerated  than  in  the  non-aerated 
specimens. 

"  It  was  in  looking  for  nitrates  and  measuring  the  amount  of  am- 
monia in  the  aerated  and  non-aerated  solutions  that  I  observed  how  much 
the  ammonia  diminished  in  amount,  and  sometimes  the  air  passing  out 
from  the  water  contained  a  strong  smell  of  ammonia.  The  sewage  was 
tossed  about,  the  volatile  matter  carried  up  with  the  currents  of  air,  and 
had  no  opportunity  of  returning.  Work  of  a  similar  kind  has  been  done 
by  Monsieur  Lauth,  which  has  been  published  in  the  Comptes  Rendus, 
where  the  following  is  stated: 

" e  It  is  well  known  that  to  obtain  the  ammonia  from  sewage  has  been 
the  aim  of  chemists  for  many  years;  and  to  make  use  of  it  in  some  form 
or  other  without  extracting  it,  has  been  the  study  of  many  engineers. 
The  amount  of  ammonia,  as  we  have  long  known,  is  great  in  sewage,  but 
we  have  not  known  how  to  remove  it.  The  amount,  however  great  in 
bulk,  is  small  indeed  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water,  being  from 
four  to  seven  grains,  very  often  not  more  in  a  gallon  of  70,000  grains. 
The  loss  of  ammonia,  when  using  the  apparatus  described,  suggested  at 
once  a  method  of  obtaining  a  revenue  from  sewage/ 

"  The  results  obtained  are  far  greater  than  those  obtained  by  me,  and 
the  product  increase  of  ammonia  by  putrefaction  is  remarkably  so. 

"  If  we  could  only  take  one  grain  of  ammonia  out  of  one  gallon  sew- 
age we  should  have  from  1,000,000  gallons  1,000,000  grains:  142.8  lbs., 
let  us  say  140  lbs.  Let  us  suppose  there  are  in  Glasgow  flowing  from 
the  sewers  daily  50,000,000  gallons,  and  we  should  have  7,000  lbs.  am- 


VAKIAI.I.I      i  "N-IITDENTS    <»!•     llll.     \  I  M  <  ».- 1  ■  1 1  I  I:  I  . 

monia  daily,  this  would  give  as  in  a  year  above  1,100  tons,  which  might 
be  put  down  as  somewhere  nearly  660,000." 

Such  estimates  as  this  serve  to  suggest  the  immense  importance  of 
ammonia  in  the  life  of  the  world.  It  is  by  ammonia  that  plants  every- 
where are  supplied  with  nitrogen — without  which  they  cannot  exist. 
The)  arc  supplied  chiefly  from  the  atmosphere  by  the  rain-,  mists,  and 
dews;  and  by  manures  of  all  kinds  whose  value  is  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  ammonia  they  contain. 

The  amount  of  ammonia  found  in  different  waters  is  (in  weight): 

Rain-water 0.0000008 

Fresh  water  (reservoirs,  etc.) 0  0000003 

Spring-water 0.0000001 

Sea-water,  from  one  to  two  grains*  for  every  cubic  foot.  Trifling  as 
this  quantity  appears  to  be,  when  we  reflect  that  the  ocean  covers  more 
than  three-quarters  of  the  globe,  and  consider  its  enormous  mass,  it  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  vast  reservoir  of  ammonia  whence  the  atmosphere 
can  make  good  the  losses  which  it  is  continually  undergoing. 

M  Desfontains,  a  distinguished  French  engineer,  some  years  ago 
estimated  the  amount  of  ammonia  carried  down  to  the  sea  by  the  Rhine. 
He  computed  that  the  Rhine  at  Lauterburg  has,  on  the  average,  a  flow  of 
39,000  cubic  feet  of  water  a  second.  From  a  careful  analysis  of  the  water, 
in  its  passage  by  Lauterburg,  it  carries  down  with  it  every  twenty-four 
hours  at  least  22,500  lbs.  of  ammonia — that  is,  13,000,000  lbs.  a  year.  Tak- 
ing this  estimate  as  a  fair  example  of  the  amount  of  ammonia  poured 
into  the  sea  by  the  rivers  of  the  world,  in  proportion  to  the  volume  of 
the  water-flow  severally,  the  mind  fails  to  comprehend  the  magnitude  of 
the  amount  of  ammonia  and  the  waste  of  agricultural  wealth  poured  into 
the  sea  by  the  outfall  of  sewers. 

Minute  traces  of  free  ammonia  or  ammonium  compounds  may  be  de- 
tected: (1)  by  Nessler's  solution — an  alkaline  solution  of  potassium- 
mercuric  iodide.1  When  a  few  drops  of  this  solution  are  added  to  a 
dilute  solution  containing  ammonia  or  a  salt  of  ammonium,  a  reddish- 
brown  precipitate  or  corresponding  color  is  at  once  produced.  In  this 
way  it  is  possible  to  detect  -j^-  of  a  milligram  of  ammonium  chloride 
dissolved  in  50  c.c.  of  water.  (2)  By  turning  vegetable  blues  green,  and 
vegetable  yellows  brown;  but  which  soon  regain  their  previous  colors, 
especially  on  the  application  of  heat.     (3)  By  producing  dense,  white 

1  Nessler  Test :  500  grains  of  iodide  of  potassium  are  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity 
of  hot  distilled  water,  and  to  this  is  gradually  added  a  cold  saturated  solution  of 
mercuric  chloride  (corrosive  sublimate),  till  the  precipitate  produced  ceases  to  be 
dissolved  upon  stirring.  To  render  this  alkaline,  add  2,000  grains  of  hydrate  of 
potassium  and  dilute  the  volume  to  10,000  grain  measures.  A  little  more  saturated 
solution  of  mercuric  chloride  is  added,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  settle,  and  the 
clear  liquid  decanted  off.  The  test  should  have  a  slightly  yellowish  tint.  If  color- 
less it  is  not  sensitive,  and  more  mercuric  chloride  must  be  added. 


36  YJlRIABLE  constituents  of  the  atmosphere. 

fumes  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  fumes  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
(4)  If  a  saturated  solution  of  arsenious  acid  is  mixed  with  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver  (two  per  cent)  a  trace  of  ammonia  causes  the  formation 
of  argentic  arsenite.  (5)  Bottger  says  an  aqueous  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  is  a  very  delicate  test;  that,  on  adding  to  a  liquid  containing  the 
smallest  quantity  of  ammonia,  or  ammoniacal  salt,  a  few  drops  of  this 
solution,  and  then  a  small  quantity  of  a  filtered  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime,  the  liquid  becomes  green,  especially  when  warm. 

2.  carbonic  acid. 

This  gas  is  like  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  being  devoid  of  color,  but  un- 
like them  in  that  it  possesses  a  slightly  pungent  odor  and  a  perceptible 
sour  taste.  Moreover,  it  is  not  a  simple  substance,  but,  like  ammonia,  a 
compound,  and  contains  two  elements:  oxygen  and  carbon;  and,  like  am- 
monia, also,  in  that  it  may  exist  in  variable  proportions  in  circumscribed 
places.  It  is  always  produced  when  carbon  in  any  form,  or  any  compound 
of  carbon,  is  burnt  with  a  free  supply  of  air;  and  is  continually  given  off 
by  man  and  the  lower  animals  in  the  process  of  respiration.  It  is  non- 
inflammable  and  irrespirable ;  an  animal  immersed  in  it  dies  instantly. 
Even  when  greatly  diluted  with  air,  it  cannot  be  inhaled  for  any  length 
of  time  without  insensibility  following.  An  atmosphere  containing  more 
than  its  natural  quantity  (about  four  volumes  in  every  ten  thousand,  or 
one  part  in  every  twenty-five  hundred  parts  by  measure),  acts  upon  the 
system  as  a  narcotic  poison,  hence  the  danger  of  overcrowded  and  un- 
ventilated  rooms.  It  is  a  non-supporter  of  combustion,  at  once  extin- 
guishing a  lighted  candle,  gas-jet,  or  even  a  piece  of  burning  phosphorus 
when  these  are  placed  in  a  jar  of  it.  Water  absorbs  its  own  volume  of 
carbonic  gas,  and  by  pressure  may  be  made  to  take  up  enormous  quan- 
tities, forming  carbonated  or  aerated  water.  It  is  evolved  in  considera- 
ble quantities  from  clefts  in  the  earth  and  caves ;  and  is  particularly 
abundant  in  the  neighborhood  of  volcanoes.  It  is  widely  distributed  in 
nature,  both  free  and  combined  with  various  bases ;  and  is  everywhere 
the  food  of  plants.  Without  carbonic  acid,  vegetation  cannot  exist,  and 
it  is  by  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid  by  plants  that  the  equable  pro- 
portion of  it  in  the  atmosphere  is  maintained. 

The  weight  of  carbonic  acid,  as  compared  with  the  other  gases  of  the 
atmosphere,  is  about  one-half  greater:  specific  gravity,  1.520.  This  fact 
suggests,  at  first  thought,  that  carbonic  acid  ought  always  to  be  found 
in  larger  proportion  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  nearer  the  floors  of 
unventilated  buildings  than  the  ceilings.  But  the  truth  is,  that  although 
carbonic  acid  is  the  heaviest  gas  of  the  atmosphere,  it  is  quite  as  abun- 
dant in  the  air  at  the  greatest  elevation  at  which  it  has  ever  been  exam- 
ined as  it  is  at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  is  due  to  the  natural  law 
of  gases,  called  gaseous  diffusion  :  That  all  gases  tend  to  diffuse  them- 
selves through  each  other. 


VAKIAIU.i:    roVMiiuENTS   OK   THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


87 


The  law  of  gaseous  ililTusion  is  promoted  by  the  wind,  hut  it  will 
operate  in  a  conlined  place;  insomuch  that  even  in  crowded  looms 
especially  if  they  are  warm,  carbonic  arid  is  frequently  found  more 
abundant  at  the  ceiling  than  it  is  at  the  floor. 

If  certain  liquids  of  different  densities  be  commingled,  such  as  oil  and 
water,  they  separate  again  immediately  that  they  are  Left  at  rest.  But 
gases  of  different  densities,  when  brought  together,  immediately  begin 
ti  intermix  and  thoroughly  incorporate  themselves  with  one  another, 
and  they  never  separate  when  left  at  rest. 

In  like  manner  all  the  gaseous  substances  of,  and  in  the  air,  in  con- 
formity to  the  law  of  gaseous  diffusion,  have  a  constant  tendency  to  in- 
terfuse and  incorporate  themselves  as  a  homogeneous  mixture  of  uniform 
proportions  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth.  Carbonic  acid  fails  in 
its  conformity  to  this  law  only  where  it  is  generated  and  restricted;  as 
in  grottos,  mines,  wells,  and  crowded  unventilated  houses  and  vessels. 
In  such  places  it  is  liable  to  accumulate  manifold  its  proportion  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  to  a  fatal  extent. 

Dr.  K.  Angus  Smith  has  shown  that  in  towns  the  oxygen  in  the  at- 
mosphere is  not  less  than  in  country  districts,  and  that  carbonic  acid 
is  often  slightly  in  excess.     This  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


IX    MANCHESTER. 


OXYGEN. 


Per  1,000  Vols. 

In  fog  and  frost 209.000 

Outer  circle,  not  raining 209.407 

.800 
.600 


Suburb  in  bot  weather 


.        j  80?J 
(209.< 


CARBONIC   ACID. 


Per  1,000  Vols. 

Streets 0.403 

Where  fields  begin 0.369 

Streets  in  fog 0.679 


IX   LOXDOX. 


OXYGEN. 


Open  places,  summer 209.500 

Streets,  November  208.850 


CARBONIC  ACID. 


On  Thames 0.343 

Parks,  open 0.301 

Streets 0.380 


M.  Reiset  obtained  from  a  year's  observations,  at  a  station  in  the 
country  far  from  dwellings,  situated  about  four  miles  from  Dieppe,  an 
average  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere  of  .2942  per  1,000.  The  air 
above  a  crop  of  red  trefoil  in  the  month  of  June  gave  .2898  per  1,000  ; 
and  at  a  height  of  one  foot  from  the  soil  in  a  barley-field  in  July,  .2829 
per  1,000.  The  corresponding  amounts  at  the  country  station  being 
.2915  and  .2933  per  1000  respectively.  The  presence  of  300  sheep  near 
the  apparatus  raised  the  proportion  to  .3178  per  1,000.  At  Paris  in  May, 
1873-75-79,  the  mean  amount  was  .3027  per  1,000.  In  a  leafy  coppice  the 
amount,  however,  was  .2997  volumes  in  1,000  of  the  air,  as  against  .2902 
volumes  in  the  open.  This  difference  between  the  coppice  and  the  open 
may  be  due  to  the  diminished  quantity  of  light  in  the  coppice.     Messrs. 


38  VARIABLE   CONSTITUENTS    OF   THE   ATMOSPHERE. 

Miintz  and  Aubin  found  in  Paris,  near  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et 
Metiers,  at  about  twenty  feet  above  the  ground,  that  the  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  varied  from  .288  to  .422,  whilst  in  the  open  country  extend- 
ing towards  Grabelle,  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  the  amount  was  nearly 
constant  at  .27  ;  and  on  the  Pic  du  Midi  they  found  a  variation  of  from 
.28  to  .30. 

It  is  evident  that  where  people  and  animals  are  assembled  in  great 
numbers,  and  the  various  processes  of  combustion  are  being  carried  on  out 
of  the  influence  of  vegetation,  as  in  large  cities,  there  may  be  occasions, 
as  in  calm  weather,  when  carbonic  acid  accumulates  temporarily  to  an 
inordinate  extent.  That  it  does  not  frequently,  is  due  to  the  law  of  dif- 
fusion, and  the  winds. 

According  to  the  experiments  on  the  diurnal  variations  of  carbonic 
acid  in  the  air  by  Saussure,  Truchot,  and  Armstrong,  the  following  are 
the  general  conclusions 

1.  That  the  normal  amount  of  carbonic  acid  present  in  the  air  of  the 
country  is  distinctly  less  than  that  usually  stated,  and  that  it  does  not 
exceed  .35  volumes  in  1,000  of  air. 

2.  That  plants  absorb  carbonic  acid  during  the  day,  and  exhale  it  at 
night,  and  that  vegetation,  therefore,  affects  the  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  present  in  the  air,  decreasing  it  by  day  and  increasing  it  at  night. 

That  from  this  cause  there  is,  during  that  part  of  the  year  when 
vegetation  is  active,  at  least  ten  per  cent  more  carbonic  acid  present  in 
the  air  of  the  open  country  at  night  than  during  the  day. 

In  confined  spaces,  occupied  by  numerous  persons,  as  before  observed, 
carbonic  acid  accumulates  in  excess.  It  had  been  found  in  dormitories, 
public  halls,  theatres,  schoolrooms,  etc.,  in  various  poisonous  amounts 
— from  .45  to  .72  per  1,000  volumes. 

As  a  test  for  carbonic  acid  in  excess,  nothing  is  better  than  lime- 
water.  This  is  readily  made  by  pouring  rain-water  or  distilled  water 
into  a  bottle  containing  some  lime  just  slaked,  shaking  the  mixture  well, 
and  then  allowing  the  lime  to  settle.  The  clear  liquid  contains  a  por- 
tion of  the  lime  in  solution,  and  this  may  be  poured  off  into  clean  dark 
glass  or  covered  bottles,  and  kept  well  stoppered  for  use.  Exposure  to 
air  and  light  spoils  it.  Carbonic  acid  is  absorbed  by  the  lime,  and  the 
causticity  of  the  lime  is  proportionally  diminished;  and  moreover,  on  ex- 
posure of  the  lime-water  to  air  containing  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  it 
speedily  becomes  almost  milk-white.  This  is  readily  perceived  by  ex- 
posing a  small  quantity  of  the  lime-water  in  a  basin,  or  pouring  it  two 
or  three  times  from  one  vessel  into  another  in  a  room  surcharged  with  the 
acid.  By  blowing  into  lime-water  through  a  tube,  or  into  a  bottle  of  it, 
and  shaking  it  a  few  times,  it  is  also  made  white.  This  shows  that  the 
breath  as  it  escapes  from  the  lungs  is  loaded  with  carbonic  acid,  and  unfit 
to  breathe  again  until  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  is  gotten  rid  of  by 
ventilation. 


\  \i;i  \i;i.i:    C0N8TTN  I  A  r8    OF    i  HE     \  i  M08FHEBE. 


39 


3.    MOISTURE. 

The  moisture  constantly  circulating  through  the  atmosphere  is  esti- 
mated to  amount  to  the  enormous  quantity  of  90,000  cubic  miles  of  water 
yearly.  This  is  raised  by  the  sun's  rays  in  the  state  of  vapor  from  tin- 
surface  of  t  lie  ocean,  lakes,  rivers,  ami  earth;  ami    expanding  more  ami 

more  as  it  rises,  it  is  distributed  by  the  winds,  insomuch  that  the 
atmosphere  is  everywhere  more  or  less  steeped  in  moisture,  which,  after 
washing  the  air  and  becoming  charged  with  the  foods  of  plants  and 
other  emanations  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  returns  again  as  the 
morning  due  or  the  refreshing  rain. 

.Moisture  has  a  powerful  affinity  for  organic  matter  in  process  of  de- 
cay, which  it  tends  to  retard  and  diffuse,  and  by  this  means  promotes 
the  contamination  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  presence  of  such  matter 
everyAvhere.  Hence  in  estimating  the  relations  of  atmospheric  humidity, 
the  conditions  of  the  locality  should  always  be  considered. 

The  amount  of  aqueous  vapor  retained  in  the  atmosphere  varies  with 
the  temperature,  over  the  ocean  and  the  land,  the  amount  of  vegetation, 
the  altitude,  geographical  position,  the  seasons,  etc.  But  at  the  same 
temperature  and  under  the  same  pressure,  the  maximum  quantity  capa- 
ble of  being  mixed  with  the  air  is  invariable.  It  is  rarely  less  than 
yta,  or  more  than  fa  of  the  volume  of  the  atmosphere,  and  gives  a  mean 
ratio  of  0.84. 

Table   shoiuing   the  Absolute   Humidity  of  Weight  of  Vapor   in   Troy 
Grains,  in  a  Cubic  Foot  of  Saturated  Air  at  the  Stated  Tem- 
peratures of  Fahrenheit : 


Temperature 
of  air 

Vapor  in  grains 

Temperature 
of  air 

Vapor  in  grains 

Temperature 
of  air 

Vapor  in  grains 

0: 

0.545 

63° 

6. 861 

80° 

10.949 

5 

0.678 

64 

6.575 

81 

11.291 

10 

0.841 

65 

6.795 

82 

11.643 

20 

1.298 

66 

7.021 

83 

12.005 

50 

1.968 

67 

7.253 

84 

12.376 

32 

2.126 

68 

7.493 

85 

12.756 

40 

8.862 

69 

7.739 

86 

13.146 

45 

3.426 

70 

7.992 

87 

13.546 

50 

4.089 

71 

8.252 

88 

13.957 

55 

4.860 

72 

8.521 

89 

14.378 

56 

5.028 

73 

8.797 

90 

14.810 

57 

5.202 

74 

9.081 

91 

15.254 

58 

5.381 

75 

9.372 

92 

16.709 

59 

5.566 

76 

9.670 

93 

16.176 

60 

5.756 

77 

9.977 

94 

16.654 

61 

5.959 

78 

10.292 

95 

17.145 

62 

6.154 

79 

10.616 

96 

17.648 

The  hygrometric  state  of  the  atmosphere,  for  a  given  temperature, 
Represents  the  relation  between  the  quantity  of  a  moisture  really  therein 


40  VARIABLE    CONSTITUENTS    OF   THE   ATMOSPHERE. 

existing,  and  the  quantity  which  would  exist  if  the  atmosphere  were  sat- 
urated at  the  same  temperature. 

The  amount  of  moisture  retained  by  the  atmosphere  at  different  de- 
grees of  temperature  is  shown  by  the  foregoing  table  from  the  Smithso- 
nian reports,  by  Professor  Guyot. 

4.      ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Atmospheric  electricity,  according  to  the  most  recent  investigations, 
is  produced — 

"  1.  (In  general)  by  the  friction  of  the  air,  humid  or  dry,  upon  the 
surface  of  land  or  of  water. 

"  Everybody  knows  Armstrong's  hydro-electric  machine.  "We  know 
that  when  the  steam  issues  from  the  heater,  the  latter  remains  negatively 
charged,  while  the  vapor  is  positively  charged.  This  machine  includes 
a  box  filled  with  water  to  cool  the  escape  tubes.  The  steam  before  reach- 
ing the  exhaust  pipes  experiences  thus  the  commencement  of  condensa- 
tion, and  issues  mixed  with  air  vesicles.     It  is  a  necessary  conditien. 

"  According  to  the  experiments  of  Faraday,  the  passage  of  dry  vapor 
or  of  a  current  of  dry  air  does  not  produce  electricity,  while  a  current 
of  humid  air  gives  the  same' result  as  Armstrong's  machine,  but  to  a  les& 
degree. 

"  It  is  true  that  Spring  found,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  friction  of 
dry  air  upon  a  ball  of  copper  gives  a  little  electricity;  but  in  an  incompar- 
ably less  quantity  than  in  the  experiment  of  Faraday.  On  the  other 
hand,  numerous  experiments  have  proved  that  the  evaporation  alone  of 
water,  even  acidulated,  does  not  produce  electricity. 

"  But  in  the  evaporation  produced  by  the  wind,  there  is  also  friction- 
It  is  in  this  last  mechanical  work  that  the  looked-for  source  resides. 

"  The  wind  in  skimming  the  surface  of  the  water  carries  watery  par- 
ticles from  the  crest  of  the  waves,  which  play  here  the  part  of  the  comb 
of  Armstrong's  machine.  The  roughness  of  the  soil  plays  the  same  part, 
when  a  damp  wind  passes  over  it. 

"  These  molecules  of  water  remain  electrified  and  ascend  into  the  at- 
mosphere to  form  clouds,  and  as  electricity  lies  at  the  surface  of  bodies,, 
it  tends  to  spread  over  the  most  elevated  atmospheric  surfaces,  and 
I  think  with  M.  Faye  that  the  cirri  must  retain  a  great  portion  of  this 
electricity. 

"  Is  there  not  a  striking  analogy  between  these  laboratory  experi- 
ments mentioned  above,  and  the  immense  operations  of  the  natural 
forces  ? 

"2.  (In  Storms)  the  above  being  granted,  we  can  conceive  that  a 
cloud  will  be  electrified  if  formed  under  the  conditions  above  mentioned. 
(It  will  not  be  same  as  a  cloud  which  is  formed  by  simple  vapor  rising  in 
the  morning  into  the  atmosphere.) 


VARIABLE   CONSTITUENTS    <»K    lin:    ATMOSPHERE.  -}  1 

"But  in  onlrr  that  lightning  be  produced,  there  mud  be  a  discharge 
betwivn  the  cloud  and  another  poinl  (earth  or  cloud)  such  thai  the  dif- 
ference of  potential  between  the  point  and  the  cloud,  existing  at  tin; 
in.. m. 'lit  considered,  in-  sufficient  to  produce  tin-  lightning  in  question. 

••  \.iu  tin-  distance  at  which  the  spark  strikes  depends  on  the  electric 
pressure  and  on  the  mechanical  resistance  that  the  medium  opposes  to 
the  discharge.     This  pressure  varies  with  the  square  of  the  potential  of 

the  cloud,  its  form,  its  surface,  the  discharge  of  the  cloud,  and  its  dis- 
tance from  the  point  specified. 

••  Now,  the  potential  energy  of  a  cloud  depends  upon  its  form,  its  sur- 
face, and  its  temperature.  When  the  primitively  electrified  cloud  expe- 
riences a  transformation  of  any  kind,  condensation,  congelation  of  the 
aqueous  vesicles,  etc.,  it  absorbs  a  certain  quantity  of  energy,  which 
must  he  found  again  under  the  form  of  an  augmentation  of  potential 
energy. 

••  This  consequence  results  from  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of 
energy,  and  from  the  principle  of  M.  Carnot,  of  which  M.  Lippman  has 
taken  such  a  remarkable  advantage. 

"  If,  then,  we  suppose  that  the  charge  of  electricity  of  a  cloud  remains 
constant  during  a  certain  time,  any  condensation  or  decrease  of  tem- 
perature will  augment  the  potential  of  its  mass. 

••  When  a  storm  bursts,  it  is  rarely  Avithout  electric  manifestations. 
The  abundant  condensation  which  may  be  remarked  becomes  the  cause 
of  the  augmentation  of  the  potential  of  the  storm  mass,  and  when  this 
potential  is  sufficient  there  is  a  discharge  in  the  form  of  lightning.  Be- 
sides, the  continual  renewal  of  the  charge  indicates  that  the  cause  resides 
in  the  storm  phenomenon  itself. 

"  3.  (In  heat  lightning)  the  air  being  dielectric,  the  vapor  becomes 
the  natural  reservoir  of  electricity.  Suppose  a  mass  of  vapor  of  wrater 
electrified  in  suspension  in  the  atmosphere.  In  the  evening  when  the 
sun  disappears,  there  will  be  a  cooling  in  the  cloudy  mass.  For  the 
reasons  given  above,  its  potential  will  be  augmented. 

"  Xow  if  the  potential  reaches  a  certain  figure,  the  vesicles,  considered 
separately,  could  not  retain  their  charge;  that  is  to  say,  it  will  escape 
into  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  silent  discharges.  Thus  we  may  cal- 
culate that  at  the  ordinary  pressure  a  small  sphere  of  T^  of  a  millimetre 
cannot  retain  electricity  at  the  potential  which  we  obtain  with  our  good 
laboratory  apparatus. 

"Because  of  the  smallness  of  the  radii  of  these  vesicles,  it  may  be 
seen  that  a  cloud  cannot  retain  a  charge  at  a  potential  surpassing  a  cer- 
tain figure. 

"  Such  is  the  manner  in  which  are  produced  the  phenomena  known 
under  the  name  of  heat  lightening.  As,  for  different  observers,  these 
flashes  appear  at  the  horizon,  it  is  logical  to  think  that  they  are  pro- 
duced at  the  zenith,  and  that  they  are  not  the  reflection  of  the  light- 


42  VARIABLE    CONSTITUENTS    OF   THE   ATMOSPHERE. 

ning  from  distant  storms.  It  is  a  similar  phenomenon  which  tran- 
spires when  a  navigator  sees  a  band  of  mist  continually  at  the  horizon, 
while  the  sky  above  his  head  is  clear.  It  is  only  a  difference  in  thick- 
ness of  the  layers  traversed  by  the  visual  rays."1 

5.     FLOATING   MATTER  IN   THE  AIR. 

With  "  floating  matter  in  the  air  "  all  scientific  readers  have  been 
made  more  or  less  familiar  by  the  experiments  and  publications  of 
Pasteur,  Bastian,  Beale,  Budd,  and  Tyndall.  In  relation  with  climate, 
it  consists  of  vapors  and  gases,  as  well  as  minute  particles  of  various 
kinds  which  continually  arise  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  water, 
and  commingles  with  the  air,  affecting  its  purity. 

The  refuse  and  the  remains  of  animals  and  plants  which  undergo  the 
processes  of  decay  or  putrefaction  under  manifold  circumstances,  and 
the  numerous  substances  which  are  burned  in  the  air,  all  produce  chem- 
ical compounds,  which,  being  volatile  or  gaseous,  ascend  and  are  dif- 
fused in  the  atmosphere  which  is  made  a  whirlpool  of  destruction  to  all 
such  matter.  Some  of  these  substances,  like  ammonia,  are  perceptible 
to  the  smell,  while  others  are  altogether  inappreciable  by  the  senses. 
Living  volcanoes  belch  forth  destructive  vapors  over  extensive  regions, 
and  thousands  of  chemical  jDrocesses  and  operations,  natural  and  artifi- 
cial, pour  out  their  volatile  exhalations  to  be  caught  up  by  the  winds, 
and  to  be  wafted  more  or  less  swiftly  and  extensively  from  their  sources, 
miugled  with  the  atmosphere,  and  destroyed. 

In  and  about  uncleanly  places  and  houses,  where  filthy  substances 
are  allowed  to  be  scattered  over  the  surfaces  and  soaked  into  the  soil, 
or  deposited  in  pits  and  cesspools  from  which  an  active  ferment  is  never 
absent,  various  gaseous  emanations  are  constantly  arising  and  com- 
mingling with  the  surrounding  air,  and  not  infrequently  to  a  dangerous 
■extent.  For  although  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  wherever  it  can  gain 
access  in  conjunction  with  sunlight,  is  ever  active  in  hastening  the  trans- 
formation of  dead  organic  matter  into  its  elementary  constituents,  when 
such  matter  is  amassed,  or  so  placed  that  the  surface  only  is  accessible  to 
the  air,  oxidation  is  not  only  thereby  prevented,  but  the  process  of  putre- 
faction is  also  retarded,  and  the  emanations  of  foul  gases  which  continue 
as  long  as  the  source  of  supply  is  kept  up,  frequently  carry  with  them  into 
the  air  particles  of  putrefying  substances,  often  of  a  very  dangerous 
character,  identified  with  the  spread  of  typhoid  fever  and  other  intestinal 
diseases. 

Moreover,  wherever  organic  matter  in  process  of  decay  exists  in  con- 
junction with  darkness,  moisture,  and  warmth,  the  air  thereabouts 
swarms  with  myriads  of  living  germs,  for  the  most  part  so  small  as  to  be 

1  M.  G.  LeGoarant  de  Tromelin,  presented  to  the  French  Academy  by  M.  Faye. 
Translated  from  Comjjtes  rendus. 


VARIABLE   CONSTITUENTS   OS    THE    ATMOSPHERE.  18 

invisible  to  the  anaided  eye,  and  bo  lighi  as  to  be  floated  by  the  air,  and 
consequently  liable  bo  be  draws  into  the  lungs  with  every  breath.    While 

a  large  proportion  Of  bhe  genus  in  such  places  are  doubtless  scavengers — 

deyourers  <>f  the  putrefying  matter — and  hence  always  found  in  greatesi 

abundance  in  filthy  places,  it  is  equally  doubtless  that  a  considerable 
proportion  of  them  are  7ery  poisonous  and  dangerous  to  human  life; 
these  are  disease  genus,  believed  to  be  a  common  cause  of  infectious  dis- 
eases. And  these,  together  with  the  filthy  particles  upon  which  they 
seem  to  exist,  afloat  in  the  air,  are  not  only  liable  to  be  taken  into  the 
lungs  with  the  breath,  but  being  wafted  throughout  all  such  preni; 
within  as  well  as  without  the  houses,  stick  to  the  walls  and  furniture, 
settle  upon  the  table  and  cooking  utensils,  and  into  the  food  and  drink, 
permeate  the  clothing,  and  attach  to  the  person.  Hence  it  is  that  the 
foul  air  of  such  places  is  not  only  in  itself  poisonous,  perpetually  lessen- 
ing the  vital  force  of  all  who  inhabit  it,  predisposing  to  blood-poisoning, 
but  it  creates  a  nidus  for  the  propagation  of  disease  germs,  and  becomes 
a  veritable  hot-bed  for  infectious  diseases  of  every  sort. 

Nearly  allied  to,  if  not  indeed  identical  with,  disease  germs,  and  per- 
haps more  closely  related  to  the  subject  of  this  work,  are  vegetable 
spores,  most  commonly  recognized  in  the  form  of  mould  or  fungus, 
which,  in  fruiting,  is  frequently  of  a  greenish  or  brown  color. 

Vegetable  mould  or  fungus,  as  it  exists  in  the  familiar  example  of 
mouldy  cheese,  is  the  same  kind  of  a  plant  as  mushrooms  and  toadstools, 
some  of  which  grow  very  large.  They  may  be  seen,  as  every  observer 
knows,  in  almost  any  meadow  during  damp,  warm  weather,  amidst 
masses  of  refuse  in  process  of  decay,  around  banks  of  manure,  and  among 
the  decaying  leaves  under  the  trees.  A  familiar  example  is  the  puff- 
ball,  because,  when  dry,  if  broken,  the  mass  of  infinitesimal  spores  puff 
out  like  smoke.  Every  one  of  the  little  spores,  which  are  so  fine  as  to 
be  no  larger  than  the  particles  of  smoke,  is  a  seed.  And  of  some  of 
these  plants  the  spores  are  so  quick  that  a  single  one,  if  planted 
in  a  congenial  place,  will  in  one  night  produce  a  plant  as  large  as  the 
double  fist.  The  number  of  spores  which  a  single  plant  of  that  size  will 
contain  is  so  great  that  if  it  were  possible  to  keep  one  man  employed  in 
counting  them,  it  would  require  the  continued  occupation  of  one  person 
day  and  night  three  hundred  years  to  count  the  number. 

This  example  serves  as  well  to  illustrate  the  e^reme  smallness  of 
disease  germs,  known  to  be  such,  as  of  fungus  spores.  Indeed,  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  they  are  only  different  species  of  the  great  divi- 
sion of  plants  to  which  they  both  belong.  There  are  a  great  many  kinds 
of  fungi,  and  the  seeds  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  whole  plants  of 
numerous  other  kinds,  are  always  floating  in  myriads  in  a  dry  atmosphere 
as  if  in  search  of  congenial  places  to  plant  themselves.  It  is  very  ques- 
tionable whether  such  spores  can  live  for  any  considerable  length  of  time 
in  an  abundance  of  pure  air  or  pure  water  in  motion;    while  it  is  beyond 


4A  VARIABLE   CONSTITUENTS    OF   THE   ATMOSPHERE. 

question  that  when  so  exposed  both  germs  and  spores  are  wholly  innocu- 
ous. But  wherever  they  find  congenial  resting  places,  there  they  take 
up  their  abode  and  flourish  until  their  food  supply  is  exhausted.  It  may 
be  upon  a  spoiled  apple  auspiciously  placed;  a  cheese  that  has  been  made 
out  of  unwholesome  material  or  that  has  not  been  well  taken  care  of;  a 
piece  of  cake  left  in  a  tainted  atmosphere;  a  jar  of  jam  left  open  under 
conditions  favorable  to  fermentation;  a  can  of  preserved  food,  fruit  or 
vegetables,  fish  or  meat,  left  open  for  convenience;  any  article  of  food 
which  has  been  kept  too  long,  or  improperly  placed — for  example,  a  pan 
of  milk  that  has  been  placed  in  the  same  ice-box,  closet,  or  dairy  with 
stale  meats  and  vegetables,  or,  worse  still,  as  recently  observed  by  the 
author,  in  the  stow-away  for  soiled  clothing  in  an  institution  for  the  care 
of  children.  Or,  finally,  it  may  be,  on  a  large  scale,  filthy  streets  and 
yards  round  our  houses,  or  the  accumulation  of  dirt  within  them.  All 
of  such  conditions  of  things,  places,  and  surroundings  are  the  common 
feeding  ground  and  fruitful  fields  of  disease  germs ;  unfortunately 
exempted  by  no  climate,  but  everywhere  dangerous  places  to  live  in,  and 
to  be  shunned  by  all  persons  who  would  not  contract  infectious  diseases, 
themselves,  nor  be  the  means  of  communicating  them  to  other  people. 


CHAPTER  V. 
THE   STABILITY   OF   LOCAL   CONDITIONS    OF   CLIMATE. 

THE   RELATIONS  OF   LAND   AND   WATER  TO   CLIMATE. 

PERMANENCY  OP  GEOLOGICAL  AGENCIES — ACTION  OF  AIR  AN'I)  WATER 
ON  THE  EARTH*-  CBUST — DIS1  NTEGRATION  OF  ROCK — PRODUCTION 
OF    SOIL — RIVERS — OCEAN-CURRENTS — THE    GULF    STREAM. 

The  atmospheric,  aqueous,  organic,  and  igneous  agencies  in  ope- 
ration, modifying  the  structure  of  the  earth's  crust,  are  probably  the 
same  at  the  present  time  as  they  have  always  been,  though  thev  may 
have  acted,  as  some  geologists  believe,  -with  a  different  energy  in  an 
earlier  period  of  the  earth's  development  than  they  now  do.  How- 
ever this  may  have  been,  it  fails  to  account  for  the  permanent  change 
of  climate  which  evidently  took  place  in  the  coal  period,  by  which  such 
a  revolution  of  climates  took  place  as  to  convert  those  which  were  tropi- 
cal into  temperate  and  frigid,  and  vice  versa.  Such  a  revolution  could 
only  have  been  brought  about  by  an  exchange  in  the  balance  between 
the  results  effected  by  the  agencies  now  in  progress. 

Whether  the  relations  of  mass  between  the  ocean  and  the  dry  land 
are  the  same  now  as  they  have  always  been  since  the  creation  of  man, 
scientific  data  are  insufficient  to  determine.  Changes  in  these  would 
unquestionably  affect  the  distribution  of  heat,  and  consequently,  propor- 
tionate changes  in  the  permanency  of  climate.  That  changes  in  these 
relations  have  taken  place  at  some  period  in  the  progress  of  the  earth's 
development,  the  evidences  of  geology  abundantly  attest. 

The  whole  of  what  is  now  dry  land  was  once  under  water,  and  much 
of  it  has  evidently  been  a  gradual  deposition  from  water.  But  evidence  is 
wholly  wanting  of  any  change  in  the  relations  of  land  and  water  of  such 
magnitude  as  to  have  had  any  permanent  effect  upon  climate  since  the 
modern  epoch  of  the  earth's  elevation.  On  the  contrary,  the  constancy 
and  the  progress  of  the  agencies  now  in  operation  are  such  as  to  warrant 
the  conclusion  that  the  alleged  changes  in  climate,  of  which  there  has 
been  so  much  said  and  written  in  recent  years,  are  very  much  exag- 
gerated, if  not,  indeed,  wholly  devoid  of  a  substantial  basis. 

The  general  effect  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
everywhere  apparent  in  the  disintegration  of  rocks  and  the  formation 


46  STABILITY   OF   LOCAL    CONDITIONS   OF   CLIMATE. 

of  soils.  These  changes  are  effected  by  the  chemical  action  of  oxygen,, 
carbonic  acid,  and  moisture.  The  evidence  of  this  origin  of  soils  is 
clearest  when  the  soil  is  found  in  situ — where  there  is  but  little  or  no  slope 
of  the  surface,  or  other  cause  favorable  to  its  removal.  In  such  cases,  it 
is  generally  easy  to  trace  every  stage  of  gradation  between  perfect  rock 
and  perfect  soil,  as  may  usually  be  seen  in  railroad  cuttings  and  in  wells, 
in  the  gneissic  region  of  the  Southern  Atlantic  States.  Near  the  sur- 
face in  this  region  is  perfect  soil,  generally  red  clay;  beneath  this  that 
which  is  of  lighter  color  and  coarser,  and  more  distinctly  stratified;  next 
below  this,  shading  into  barely  perceptible  gradations  of  color,  it  appears 
as  stratified  rock,  but  it  crumbles  into  coarse  dust  in  the  hand.  This 
passes  by  imperceptible  gradations  into  rotten  rock,  and  finally  into  per- 
fect rock.  These  are  all  different  stages  of  gradual  disintegration. 
Wherever  perfect  soil  is  found  resting  on  sound  rock,  the  soil  has  been 
shifted. 

If  rocks  were  solid  and  impervious  to  water,  the  action  of  the  atmo- 
sphere upon  them  would  be  inconceivably  slow;  but  as  they  are  all  more 
or  less  broken  by  fissures,  there  is  an  immense  exposure  of  surface,  and 
in  cold  climates  mechanical  force  is  added  by  frost.  The  influence  of 
the  wind  in  shifting  the  sands  of  desert  regions,  and  that  which  is  thrown 
out  by  the  sea,  is  also  very  great. 

The  depth  to  which  soil  will  accumulate  depends  partly  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  rock,  partly  upon  the  inclination  of  the  surface,  and  partly 
upon  the  climate  as  regards  temperature  and  moisture.  But  all  soils, 
with  the  exception  of  the  thin  stratum  of  vegetable  mould  which  forms 
on  certain  circumscribed  localities,  are  due  to  atmospheric  agency, 
though  they  are  sometimes  removed  as  fast  as  they  are  formed,  and  de- 
posited at  a  distance  more  or  less  remote  from  the  parent  rock. 

Water,  in  the  form  of  vapor,  fogs,  or  rain,  soaked  into  the  surfaces 
and  crevices  of  the  earth,  is  also  a  powerful  agency  in  the  disintegration 
of  the  hardest  rocks.  Much  of  the  water  which  falls  as  rain,  however, 
is  never  absorbed  by  the  earth,  but  runs  off  the  surface,  forming  rills, 
which,  by  erosion,  produce  furrows,  rivulets,  and  gullies.  And  these, 
uniting  with  one  another  and  the  larger  streamlets,  form  torrents,  ravines, 
gorges,  and  canons;  and  again,  these  uniting,  form  rivers,  which  sweep 
down  and  deposit  their  freight  of  soil  from  the  disintegrated  rocks  by  the 
way,  or  pour  it  into  the  sea.  The  hydrographical  basins  of  rivers,  lakes, 
or  gulfs  comprehend  the  area  of  land  which  drains  the  rainfall  into  the 
latter,  and  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  surface  soil  and  boundaries  of  the 
areas,  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  amount  of  soil  removed  from 
them.  For  example,  the  area  of  the  Mississippi  basin  is  1,244,000  square 
miles.  According  to  the  experiments  and  estimate  of  Humphrey  and 
Abbot,1  the  discharge  of  sediment  annually  from  this  area  amounts  to 


1  "Report  on  Mississippi  River." 


BTABUJTT    OF    LOCAL   »  <>\  i  u  uo\s   OF   OLDCATV.  17 

7,471, 111,200  cubic  feet,  a  mass  suffioionl  to  cover  an  area  of  one  square 
mile  268  feet  deep.  This  spread  over  the  whole  basin  would  oovor  il 
the  depth  of  about  jfo  of  an  inch,  equal  to  the  thickness  of  one  foot 
in  4, sou  years.    This  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair  example  of  the  ero- 
sive and  distributive  power  of  rivers, 

The  erosive  effect  of  i  lie  t  ides  ami  waves  of  sea-coasts  is  more  mar 
The  softer  parts  are  worn  away  or  scooped  out  into  harbors,  while  the 
harder  parts  extend  out  into  the  sea,  and  the  progress  of  these  erosions 
is  in  some  eases  so  great  as  to  effect  important  changes  in  short  periods 
of  time.  For  example,  Sullivan's  Island,  the  protecting  reef  of  Charles- 
ton harbor,  for  a  few  years  past  has  been  wearing  away  at  the  rate  of 
from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  annually,  insomuch  that  the  Government  has 
been  constrained  to  interpose  protecting  barriers  against  the  erosion  for 
the  preservation  of  the  harbor.  Cape  May  is  also  losing  about  nine  feet 
annually. 

As  a  general  fact,  however,  Le  Conte  states  the  southern  coast  of  the 
United  States  is  receiving  accessions  by  the  inflow  from  the  sea  more 
rapidly  than  it  is  wearing  away,  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  New  Eng- 
land coast,  as  proved  by  its  rocky  character,  is  losing  much  more  than 
it  gains.     The  shores  of  the  great  lakes  show  similar  changes.1 

But  far  more  powerful  is  the  effect  of  ocean  currents.  The  ocean, 
like  the  atmosphere,  is  in  constant  motion,  not  only  on  its  surface, 
but  throughout. 

The  great  and  controlling  cause  of  ocean  currents,  as  of  the  air,  is 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  equatorial  and  polar  regions.2 

Water  has  a  greater  capacity  for  heat  than  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
whence  it  results  that  the  sea  is  cooler  than  the  land  in  summer,  and 
warmer  in  winter.  The  sea  breezes  also  add  to  the  influence  of  the 
water  in  preventing  the  coast-line  from  being  as  cold  as  the  country 
farther  inland. 

Water  becomes  less  readily  heated  upon  the  surface  than  the  ground, 
because  the  latter  has  a  specific  heat  much  below  that  of  water.  For 
instance,  the  quantity  of  solar  heat  required  to  increase  the  temperature 
of  the  earth's  surface  ten  degrees  is  much  less  than  that  which  would 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  liquid  surface  the  same  number  of  degrees, 
because  the  greater  capacity  of  the  latter  for  heat.  Moreover,  the  solar 
rays  penetrate  to  a  much  greater  depth,  and  consequently  become  ab- 
sorbed to  a  much  greater  extent  in  water  than  they  do  in  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  insomuch  that,  at  sea,  they  do  not  become  extinct  until 
they  have  reached  a  depth  of  about  a  thousand  feet.  So  that  the  heat 
arising  from  the  absorption,  instead  of  being  concentrated  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water,  is  diffused  through  a  great  mass,  and  is,  of  course, 

1  "  Elements  of  Geology,"  by  Joseph  Le  Conte. 

2  Guyot,  "  Earth  and  Man." 


48  STABILITY   OF    LOCAL    CONDITIONS    OF    CLIMATE. 

less  intense  in  proportion  as  this  mass  is  larger,  but  with  effects  the 
same  as  that  which  heat  has  upon  the  atmosphere,  and  of  equal  import- 
ance— the  establishment  of  marine  currents. 

The  ocean  currents  are  the  great  rivers  of  the  sea.  They  move  continu- 
ally through  waters  comparatively  tranquil,  but  usually  distinguishable 
by  a  difference  in  temperature  and  color.  Unlike  inland  streams,  which, 
in  comparison  are  but  threads  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  ocean 
currents  are  scores,  ay,  even  hundreds  of  miles  broad,  and  their  course  is 
over  the  greater  portion  of  the  globe.  And  they  are  not  only  found 
near  the  surface,  but  in  many  cases  at  great  depths,  and  moving  in  dif- 
ferent directions. 

The  cold  and  heavier  waters  of  the  frigid  zone  tend  incessantly  to  flow 
into  and  to  displace  the  warm  and  lighter  waters  of  the  torrid  zone.  When 
the  currents  meet,  the  cold  waters  sink  below  the  warm,  but  anon  to 
return  under  the  influence  of  heat  as  surface  currents  to  the  polar  re- 
gions. Hence  the  two  series  of  currents,  the  cold  from  the  polar,  and 
the  warm  from  the  tropical  regions,  both,  however,  deflected  from  a 
straight  course  by  the  earth's  rotation — the  polar  currents  more  and 
more  to  the  west,  and  the  tropical  more  and  more  to  the  east.  The  polar 
currents  from  the  two  hemispheres  unite  in  the  tropical  zone,  and, 
aided  by  the  powerful  influence  of  the  trade-winds  from  the  great  equa- 
torial current,  give  origin  to  the  Gulf  Stream. 

The  Gulf  Stream  springs  from  the  accumulated  warm  waters  of  the 
equatorial  regions  in  the  G-ulf  of  Mexico.  It  first  becomes  appreciable 
on  the  west  coast  of  Florida,  gently  flowing  southerly  until  it  reaches  the 
Tortugas,  where  it  bends  its  course  easterly  and  runs  along  on  Florida 
Eeef  till  it  reaches  the  confined  limits  of  the  strait  between  Florida  on 
the  one  side  and  Cuba  and  the  Bahamas  on  the  other,  whence  it  moves 
more  rapidly,  and  takes  its  northward  course  along  the  coast  of  the 
United  States.  No  longer  restrained,  it  of  course  widens  its  bounds  and 
slackens  its  swiftness,  but  such  is  its  impetus  that  it  may  be  distinctly 
perceived  as  far  north  as  the  Great  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  though 
gradually  turning  its  course  to  the  east  from  the  time  it  has  reached  the 
latitude  of  New  York;  thence  it  crosses  the  Atlantic  basin  to  the  islands 
of  the  Azores.  Here  it  divides:  the  main  branch,  cooled  by  contact 
with  the  waters  from  the  polar  regions,  bending  its  course  southward, 
enters  the  tropical  regions  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  by  the  force  of  the 
north  equatorial  current  it  sweeps  back  again  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Thus  a  great  whirlpool  is  formed  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  marked 
"by  the  accumulated  and  vast  amount  of  Gulf  seaweed  which  bears  the 
name  of  mar  de  Sargasso. 

The  northern  branch,  influenced  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  con- 
tinues its  slanting  course  to  the  British  Isles  and  Norway,  and  often 
carries  to  their  shores  the  evidence  of  its  source — the  tropical  seeds,  sea- 
weed, and  drift  wood  from  the  West  Indies. 


STAIUUIY    OF    LOCAL    CONDITIONS    OI<    CLIMATE.  )'.' 

The  bigh  temperature  of  the  water  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  aa  well  b 
blue  color  and  motionj  distinguishes  il  from  all  of  the  other  porl  ion 
the  ocean.     It  carries  congenial  warmth  all  alongto  the  Northi 

of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  ami  to  the  west  const,  of  Europe,  and 
gives  to  the  British  Isles  the  temperate  climate  they  enjoy  even  in  the 
high  northern  latitude  in  which  they  are  Bituated. 

The  At  hint  ic  Ocean  is  almost  the  only  outlet  of  the  waters  of  the 
north  polar  toward  the  equatorial  regions,  as  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  that 
oi  the  south  polar  waters.  Under  the  influence  of  the  earth's  rotation, 
the  polar  currents  all  trend  to  the  west  on  the  American  coast.  Two 
main  currents,  one  on  each  side  of  Greenland,  carry  the  waters  and 
masses  of  ice  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  towards  the  warmer  latitudes — the 
Greenland  current  along  the  eastern  coast,  and  the  Labrador  current 
along  the  western,  from  Baffin's  Bay.  Joining  their  waters,  laden  with 
icebergs,  they  flow  to  Newfoundland,  where  they  meet  the  warm  waters 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  condensing  the  moisture  of 
that  comparatively  mild  atmosphere,  they  produce  the  everlasting  fogs 
peculiar  to  that  region.  Thence,  following  the  coast,  between  it  and 
the  Gulf  Stream,  the  polar  current  makes  itself  felt  on  the  northern 
sea  shore  as  far  south  as  the  latitude  of  New  York,  where  it  sinks  under 
the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  pursues  its  grand  circuit. 

Other  currents  though  perhaps  of  less  magnitude  than  the  Gulf 
Stream,  are  traceable  throughout  the  whole  expanse  of  the  waters  of  the 
sea. 

Such  is  the  process  by  which  the  sea  serves  to  distribute  heat.  The 
mass  of  observations  collected  show  that  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
in  the  temperate  zone  the  mean  temperature  of  an  island  situated  in  the 
midst  of  the  Atlantic,  or  at  a  great  distance  from  the  Continent,  is 
higher  and  the  climate  more  equable  than  that  of  a  place  in  the  same 
latitude  on  the  main  land — that  the  winter  is  warmer  and  the  summer 
cooler.  This  has  been  especially  marked  in  the  island  of  Madeira,  and 
the  Bermudas.  Hence  there  is  an  important  difference  between  the 
climates  of  islands  or  sea-coasts  pertaining  to  continents  that  abound  in 
gulfs  and  peninsulas,  and  the  climates  of  the  interior  of  great  and  com- 
pact masses  of  dry  land. 

But  besides  this  chief  function  of  the  ocean  currents  to  distribute 
heat,  they  serve  to  distribute  over  the  bottom  of  the  sea  the  sediments 
brought  down  by  the  rivers.  "Without  this  agency,  such  sediments 
would  be  dropped  near  the  shore,  none  would  reach  the  open  sea. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  much  of  the  sediments  poured  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  from  the  great  basin  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  rivers  of 
the  Mexican  and  Central  American  coast  is  deposited  on  and  about  the 
cape  and  reefs  of  the  coast  of  Florida  and  the  Bahamas.  Great  banks 
far  away  from  shore  also  owe  their  origin  to  the  same  means.  Thus  the 
Banks  of    Newfoundland  are   evidently  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 


50  STABILITY   OF   LOCAL    CONDITIONS    OF    CLIMATE. 

polar  current  bearing  icebergs  loaded  with  earth,  and  the  warm  current 
of  the  Gulf  Stream.  However  formed  in  the  first  place,  when  a  sub- 
marine bank  has  risen  sufficiently  near  the  surface  of  the  water  for  the 
waves  touching  bottom  on  its  border  to  form  breakers,  these  begin  to 
throw  up  sand  or  mud  from  the  bottom  until  an  island  is  formed,  which 
continues  to  grow  until  it  becomes  inhabited  by  plants  and  animals,  and 
finally  by  man.  By  the  same  agency  the  islands  and  sandspits  have  been 
formed  all  along  our  Atlantic  sea  coast,  separating  the  harbors  and 
sounds  from  the  ocean.  These  are  more  or  less  changeable  in  their  out- 
line from  year  to  year,  but  in  the  progress  of  time  the  common  result  is 
the  filling  up  of  tidal  inlets  and  a  gradual  encroachment  of  the  coast  line 
upon  the  sea. 

The  force  of  the  waves,  in  conjunction  with  the  chief  of  the  organic 
agencies,  is  also  a  powerful  means  of  building  up  shoals  and  islands. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

STABILITY    OF    LOCAL    CONDITIONS    OF  CLIMATE  (CON- 
TINUED). 

THE     RELATIONS     OF    ORGANIC     AGENCIES    TO    CLIMATE— CORALS 
AND    CORAL  ISLANDS— PEAT  AND   COAL. 

The  organic  agencies  comprehended  in  the  structure  of  the  earth's 
crust  are  by  both  animal  and  plant  formation,  and  those  of  the  former 
especially  are  frequently  found  to  exercise  important  influences  over 
sanitary  topography. 

Most,  if  not  indeed  all,  of  the  inhabited  islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  of  the  innumerable  islands  which  gem  the  seas  of  all  warm 
climates,  and  thousands  of  miles  of  the  inhabited  coasts,  frequently  ex- 
tending far  into  the  interior  of  the  American  continent;  all  of  the  marble 
quarries  and  lime-stone  strata  of  a  former  era  in  the  earth's  development, 
and  the  cumulative  coral  islands  and  reefs  of  the  present  era  have  been 
built  up  by  the  madrepore,  or  coral  polyp,  an  animal  of  the  simplest 
structure,  composed  of  a  soft  and  almost  transparent  substance,  which 
has  the  power  of  multiplying  indefinitely  by  buds  and  branches.  "When 
a  large  number  of  madrepores  are,  by  force  of  currents,  planted  to- 
gether, they  may  be  seen  at  the  bottom  of  clear  still  waters,  where  they 
flourish,  shooting  up  their  brilliant  stems  in  groves  of  every  conceivable 
shade  of  beauty.  In  this  living  group  some  of  the  flowers  are  fully  open 
resembling  the  petals  of  the  Cypress  vine  (Ipmoea  quamoclit),  while, 
others  are  closed  like  buds,  but  constantly  changing  their  appearance 
from  bud  to  blossom,  and  from  open  flower  to  bud  again. 

The  madrepores  always  work  upwards  towards  the  light,  and  most 
vigorously  when  washed  by  the  beating  waves  of  a  rocky  bottom.  They 
have  never  been  found,  however,  at  a  greater  depth  than  two  hundred 
feet;  hence  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  all  coral  beds  must  have  been  de- 
posited within  this  distance  from  the  surface.  Their  peculiar  office 
seems  to  be  to  plant  themselves  upon  submarine  elevations,  and  build 
them  up  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  Gradually  the  accumulating  pile 
rises,  and  at  length,  after  the  lapse  of  ages,  portions  of  the  rocky  fabric 
show  themselves  above  the  waves.  Here  further  growth  is  checked;  the 
polyps  cannot  live  beyond  the  point  where  water  freely  reaches  them, 
from  whence  they  may  derive  nutriment;  hence  so  soon  as  the  elevation 


52  STABILITY    OF    LOCAL    CONDITIONS    OF    CLIMATE. 

lias  reached  such  a  height  as  to  remain  dry  at  low  water,  they  leave  off 
building  it  higher.  Yet  they  toil  on  round  the  edge  of  the  fringing  reef. 
The  structure  reared  becomes  a  nucleus  round  which  materials  are  col- 
lected. Fragments  of  seaweed  gather  round  and  cling  to  the  rough 
margin;  dead  coral  and  sea  shells  are  strewn  over  the  surface.  And  the 
breaking  surf  at  every  flood  tears  up,  jmlverizes,  and  commingles  the  an- 
imal and  vegetable  substances,  which,  at  every  ebb  of  the  tide,  are  ex- 
posed to  the  rays  of  the  burning  sun. 

The  heat  of  the  sun  so  penetrates  the  mass  when  it  is  dry  that  it 
bakes  and  splits  into  large  fragments.  These  flakes,  so  separated,  are 
raised  one  upon  another  by  the  waves  at  the  time  of  high  water,  and  the 
always-active  surf  continues  to  throw  up  shells,  marine  animals,  and  sea- 
weed between  and  upon  them,  to  be  ground  and  compacted  into  the 
more  and  more  solid  mass.  Now  peering  above  the  waters,  drift  wood, 
frequently  consisting  of  the  entire  trunks  o£  trees  which  have  been  car- 
ried into  the  sea  by  the  rivers  of  distant  countries,  after  long  wander- 
ings, finds  here  at  length  a  resting  place.  And  with  these,  perchance, 
come  some  small  animals,  such  as  lizards  and  insects,  as  the  first  inhabi- 
tants. Flocks  of  migrating  birds,  attracted  by  the  appearance  of  food, 
here  find  a  convenient  halting  place,  and  bring  with  them  the  seeds  of 
plants  from  their  previous  abode;  anon  the  seeds  take  root,  spring  up 
and  grow,  and  the  strayed  land  birds  take  refuge  in  the  bushes. 

The  older  and  usually  central  portions  of  coral  islands,  powdered 
and  solidified  by  the  joint  action  of  the  surf  and  the  heat  of  the  sun's 
rays,  after  a  time  begin  to  subside.  Meanwhile,  the  ever  active  agencies 
of  the  living  madrepores,  many  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  dashing 
breakers  above,  are  unceasing,  and  new  material  is  continually  being 
added  to  the  margin.  Great  sun-baked  flakes  are  tossed  up  by  the 
breakers  of  the  recurring  tides,  fencing  in  the  central  lagoon,  which,  by 
the  lapse  of  centuries,  is  converted  into  a  refuge,  with  its  fruitful  soil 
around  and  expanded  reefs  beyond,  invites  the  explorer,  the  pioneer,  and 
the  invalid  to  new  fields  of  health,  commerce,  and  fortune. 

Such  is  the  process  of  formation  of  chalk  and  limestone  in  enormous 
masses,  of  various  kinds,  from  the  beginning,  and  still  in  progress,  com- 
jDrehending  immense  areas  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  in  some  regions 
thousands  of  feet  in  thickness. 

The  vegetable  accumulations  which  enter  into  the  structure  of  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  and  exercise  influence  over  climate,  are  peat-swamps 
and  coal  fields. 

In  undrained  places  in  moist  climates,  the  surface  mass  of  accumu- 
lated debris  and  mud  in  low  places  is  frequently  found  to  be  the  mere 
covering  of  a  black,  tough  carbonaceous  layer,  interlaced  with  roots  of 
many  feet  in  thickness.  This  substance  is  known  as  peat,  and  it  com- 
monly rests  upon  a  tremulous,  semi-fluid  quagmire,  sometimes  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  in  depth,  in  which  animals  in  search  of  food  and  hunters  are 


-i  \  i :  1 1  1 1  V    OF    LOCAL   CONDITION    OF   <umaii.  58 

sometimes  buried  by  the  breaking  through,  or  by  open  spaces  in  tho 

Superficial  layer. 

Some  countries    arc    particularly  noted    for   bheir  extensive    peal 

swamps  and  bogs.      One-tenth  of  the  whole  BUrface  of   [reland  and  I 

areas  in  Scotland  and  England  are  covered  witb  it.  There  are  also 
extensive  swamps  in  this  country.  Tho  amount  of  peal  in  Massachu- 
setts alone,  Dana  '  has  estimated  to  he  upwards  of  15,000,000,000  of  cubic 
feet,  and  Le  Conte  is  authority  for  extensive  areas  of  it  in  California.2 

Peal  consists  of  disintegrated  and  partially  transformed  vegetable 
matter,  and  is  composed  of  variable  proportions  of  the  same  constituents 
as  the  atmosphere,  but  with  carbon  and  carbonic  acid  greatly  in  excess. 

Peat  swamps  are  remarkable  for  their  relative  exemption  from  mias- 
matic diseases,  as  compared  with  recent  accumulations  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter in  swampy  regions  before  transformation.  This  exemption  is  proba- 
bly due  to  the  presence  and  antiseptic  properties  oft  humic  acid  and 
of  hydrocarbons  analogous  to  bitumen,  which  are  found  only  when 
vegetable  matter  is  decomposed  in  contact  with  excess  of  water. 

The  conditions  commonly  considered  the  most  promotive  of  the  for- 
mation of  peat  are  cold  and  moisture;  and  of  these  the  former  is  thought 
to  be  the  most  important,  as,  without  cold,  it  is  assumed  vegetable  mat- 
ter would  be  destroyed  by  decay,  and  in  proof  of  this  it  is  stated  that 
peat-swamps  are  more  numerous  in  cold  than  in  warm  climates.  But 
this  is  doubtful.  Moisture  is  unquestionably  an  essential  condition 
under  all  circumstances,  and  wherever  this  is  found  to  have  obtained  in 
excess,  with  an  abundance  of  vegetable  matter,  peat-bogs  are  also  found. 
The  great  Dismal  Swamp  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  is  a  promi- 
nent example,  and  the  writer  has  observed  the  same  condition  in  other 
and  still  warmer  climates.  It  is  probable  that  the  peat  of  such  regions 
is  an  additional  element  to  their  salubrity,  more  particularly  noticed  in 
the  chapter  on  Forests. 

Coal  formations,  which  appear  to  be  but  another  step  in  the  progress 
of  the  transformation  of  organic  into  inorganic  matter,  everywhere  bear 
evidence  of  their  relation  to  climates. 

The  climate  of  the  coal  period  over  regions  of  the  earth's  surface 
which  are  now  great  coal  fields  was  undoubtedly  characterized  by  much 
greater  warmth,  humidity,  and  uniformity,  and  a  more  highly  carbon- 
ated condition  of  the  atmosphere  than  that  which  now  obtains.  But  the 
evidence  which  the  coal  formation  bears  to  the  probability  that  the 
greater  part,  if  not  the  whole  of  it,  as  it  now  appears,  was  effected  under 
climatic  conditions  unfavorable,  and  probably  previous,  to  the  existence 
of  man  upon  the  earth,  and  the  extreme  slowness  by  which  this  trans- 
formation takes  place,  is  such  as  to  divest  it  of  any  present  significance 
in  relation  with  climate. 

1  '•  Manual  of  Geology." 
■  Loc.  cit. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
HEAT. 

LAWS  OF  HEAT — THE  ZONES — HOW  THE  TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  EARTH'S 
SURFACE  IS  MAINTAINED — DIFFERENT  CONDITIONS  OF  HEAT — 
ANOMALIES  OF  EXTREME  HEAT  IN  THE  EASTERN  STATES,  AXD  ITS 
DANGERS — RELATIONS    OF    HEAT   TO    ALTITUDE. 

Heat  it  the  fundamental  power  of  climate.  The  atmosphere  is  the 
life  of  the  world,  but  if  the  atmosphere  were  not  the  carrier  of  heat  there 
would  be  no  life. 

It  is  heat  which  sets  the  air  in  motion,  governs  the  course  of  the 
winds,  moves  the  currents  of  the  ocean,  supplies  the  atmosphere  with 
moisture,  distributes  the  rains,  and  distils  the  dews.  Hence  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  which  govern  heat  are  of  primary  importance  in  the 
study  of  climate. 

Experiments  show  that  nearly  all  bodies  are  subject  to  expansion,  or 
increase  in  volume  by  the  application  of  heat,  and  recover  their  original 
size  when  reduced  to  the  initial  temperature.  Thus  if  the  temperature 
of  an  iron  bar  be  raised  5°,  and  thereby  increased  in  length  one  inch,  by 
elevating  the  temperature  to  10°  it  will  have-  increased  two  inches.  Or 
if  a  ball  of  iron  be  made  of  such  a  size  as  to  pass  through  an  aperture 
at  a  temperate  warmth,  it  will  not  fall  through  when  heated.  Liquids 
are  in  like  manner  amenable  to  the  law  of  expansion.  If  a  glass  tube  be 
inserted  through  a  cork  into  a  flask  tilled  with  water,  and  heat  applied, 
the  water  will  rise  in  the  tube,  and  the  higher  as  it  becomes  warmer.  It 
is  in  accordance  with  the  same  law  that  the  thermometer  was  con- 
structed, and  operates  by  the  expansion  of  mercury,  or,  rather,  by 
dilating  in  equal  amounts  for  equal  increments  of  heat. 

But  water  is  an  extraordinary  exception  to  the  law  of  expansion  by 
heat.  It  contracts  till  cooled  down  to  the  temperature  of  40°  F.,  after 
which  it  expands.  It  is  in  consequence  of  this  peculiarity  that  ice 
always  floats.  This  effect  of  heat  on  water  is  illustrated  by  another,  and 
a  very  curious  consequence.  When  a  pool  or  a  well  of  melted  ice  hap- 
pens to  be  formed  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  mass  of  ice,  as  not  infre- 
quently happens  in  the  glaciers  of -cold  regions,  the  well  quickly  increases 
in  depth  until  it  entirely  penetrates  the  ice  to  the  earth  beneath.  Sup- 
posing the  water  at  the  surface  when  the  pool  or  well  first  forms  to  be 


HEAT. 

about  or  but  little  above  the  freezing  point  of  82  ,  as  it,  becomes  heated 
by  the  air  and  Bun'srays,  instead  of  being  thereby  expanded  (as it  would 
ii  ii  oonformed  to  the  law  of  expansion),  and  rendered  specifically 
lighter  and  detainedal  the  Burface,  as  it,  more  nearly  approaches  the 
temperature  of  40  it  becomes  heavier,  and  therefore  sinks  down  to  the 
bottom;  but  there,  by  melting  some  of  the  ice,  and  consequently  becom- 
ing cooled,  it  is  again  made,  lighter,  and,  rising  again  to  the  surface, 
gives  place  to  another  descending  portion,  which  has,  from  exposure, 
acquired  the  same  properties,  and  so  on;  the  circulation  and  digging 
cease  only  when  the  water  has  bored  its  way  quite  through  the  ice  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

The  manner  in  which  heat  is  communicated  through  liquids,  is 
by  convection.  When  applied  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  mass,  for  ex- 
ample, to  the  bottom  of  a  tube  containing  water,  the  particles  heated 
expand,  and  becoming  lighter,  ascend,  while  the  colder  particles  from 
above  descend  and  supply  their  place.  The  process  may  be  clearly  shown 
by  throwing  into  the  tube,  while  the  water  is  boiling,  some  insoluble 
powder  whose  specific  gravity  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  water,  when  a 
series  of  upward  and  downward  currents  will  be  exhibited,  which  will 
continue  as  long  as  the  boiling. 

Gases  become  heated  in  the  same  way  as  liquids,  though  the  currents 
nave  more  of  a  wavy  or  cloudy  form,  unless,  as  is  seldom  the  case,  the 
air  is  perfectly  still,  when  smoke  is  seen  to  ascend  vertically,  and  fogs 
and  vapors  rise  in  the  same  manner. 

Gases  and  vapors  expand  by  heat;  and  air  which  is  a  gaseous  com- 
pound, conforms  to  the  law. 

The  results  of  scientific  experiments  show  that  the  ratio  of  expansion 
of  a  volume  of  air  in  passing  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point  of 
water  is  £{j  |;  ,f  ;  that  is  to  say,  a  quantity  of  air  equal  in  volume  to  1,000 
cubic  inches  at  32°  F.  will  expand  to  13G5.5  cubic  inches  at  212°,  or 
by  an  increase  of  180°  of  heat.  Hence,  as  it  has  been  proved  that  the 
expansion  is  the  same  for  each  additional  degree  of  heat,  the  expansion 
will  be  equal  to  0.00203G,  or  j^V.tt  ^or  eacn  degree  : — 

Four  hundred  and  ninety-one  cubic  feet  of  air  at  a  temperature  of 
32    will  become  492  at  33° 
493  at  34° 
490  at  31° 
489  at  30° 
488  at  29°,  etc. 
Solid  bodies  lose  or  acquire  heat  by  conduction.    The  particles  nearest 
the  source  acquire  heat  and  transmit  it  to  those  in  contact  with  them, 
and  these  to  the  next,  and  so  on  till  the  whole  mass  has  attained  the  heat 
of  the  surrounding  medium.     If  the  temperature  of  this  medium,  sup- 
pose the  air,  be  reduced,  the  surface  of  the  heated  body  radiates  forth 
its  heat  from  the  interior  till  equilibrium  is  restored. 


56  HEAT. 

According  to  the  greater  or  less  rapidity  with  which  heat  is  diffused 
throughout  a  substance,  so  it  is  said  to  be  a  good  or  a  bad  conductor  of 
heat.  Metals  are  good  conductors;  gases,  liquids,  and  earthy  matters, 
scarcely  conduct  at  all.  The  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  greatly  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  surface:  smooth  or  polished  surfaces  radiate  much 
more  slowly  than  rough  surfaces. 

Glass  and  wood  are  bad  conductors  of  heat.  For  illustration,  a  piece 
of  wood  may  be  held  in  the  hand  and  burned  until  within  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  flame,  or  a  glass  rod  held  by  the  fingers  within  an  inch 
from  the  flame  of  a  blow  pipe,  without  inconvenience,  whereas  the  end 
of  an  iron  wire,  which  is  a  good  conductor,  held  in  the  same  flame  and 
heated  to  redness,  will  be  heated  and  rendered  intolerable  for  a  foot  or 
more  from  the  flame. 

Air  is  a  bad  conductor,  and  hence  the  utility  of  double  windows  in 
cold  climates,  which  include  a  layer  of  air  between  that  prevents  the 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  rooms  into  the  colder  atmosphere  without. 

Ice  is  a  bad  conductor,  and  snow  a  still  worse.  A  surface  of  ice  pre- 
vents the  cooling  of  water  underneath ;  and  snow  prevents  the  ground 
from  freezing,  and  protects  the  delicate  roots  of  plants  from  the  effects, 
of  severe  cold. 

The  barks  of  trees  are  bad  conductors,  and  exhibit  a  structure  of 
porous  material,  with  pores  filled  with  air  ;  which  finds  its  imitation  in 
the  cover  of  the  boilers  of  steam  engines  with  wood  and  felt.  And  for 
the  same  reason,  ice  is  wrapped  in  flannel  because  the  flannel  is  a  bad 
conductor,  and  prevents  the  external  heat  from  reaching  it. 

The  crust  of  the  earth  is  almost  wholly  composed  of  bad  conductors, 
of  heat.  Hence,  although  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  well  known  to  be 
of  a  much  higher  temperature  than  the  superficial  layers,  no  heat  is  com- 
municated to  the  surface  from  the  interior.  And  for  the  same  reason, 
the  sun's  rays,  upon  which  the  surface  of  the  earth  wholly  depends  for 
its  warmth,  never  penetrate  to  any  considerable  depth — the  temperature 
of  mines  and  wells,  even  a  few  feet  deep,  continue  about  the  same  for 
summer  and  winter. 

Liquids  are  also  bad  conductors.  If  a  tube  be  filled  with  water,  and 
held  aslant  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp,  the  water  may  be  made  to 
boil  from  the  top,  while  a  piece  of  ice  may  be  retained  at  the  bottom. 

Although  the  earth  is  a  warm  body,  which  at  the  beginning  was 
probably  incandescent,  it  has  so  cooled  down  at  the  surface  by  the  lapse 
of  ages  as  to  retain  scarcely  a  trace  of  its  original  temperature.  Never- 
theless, we  know  that  the  temperature  of  the  earth  increases  as  we  de- 
scend into  the  interior  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  to  every  112  feet,  and 
that  the  internal  heat  must  be  very  great  underneath  volcanoes.  Nine 
thousand  feet  of  depth,  or  about  one  mile  and  seven-tenths  gives  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water  ;  at  the  depth  of  thirty  miles,  at  the  same 
ratio,  the  heat  is  sufficiently  intense  to  melt  all  the  rocks  and  metals 


i  hat.  57 

contained  in  the  earth's  crust,  and  to  account  for  the  torrents  <>f  molten 
ticry  lava  belched  from  the  craters  of  raging  volcanoes.  It  is  to  this  in- 
ternal heal  of  the  earth  that  hot  springs,  and  the  warm  rater  01  deep 
artesian  wells  are  due.     Bnt  all  the  heat  available  for  the  purpose  ot 

organic  life  is  unquestionably  due   to  the  influence  of  the  the 

sun. 

Though  the  sun  pours  its  life-giving  rays  in  a  uniform  and  uninter- 
rupted stream  upon  the  earth's  surface,  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth 
and  its  movements  of  daily  rotation  on  its  axis  and  annual  revolution 
around  the  sun,  establish  permanent  differences  of  temperature,  in  every 
latitude  between  the  poles  and  the  equator,  and  periodical  difference 
upon  the  seasons,  and  upon  the  diurnal  rotation  for  day  and  night. 

The  division  of  climate  into  zones  is  based  upon  the  permanent  differ- 
ences in  the  power  of  the  sun's  rays  on  the  earth's  surface. 

Two  imaginary  parallel  lines  to  the  equator  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  at  the  distance  of  23°  28'  in  each  hemisphere,  designate  two  cir- 
cles between  which  the  sun  passes  across  the  zenith  at  certain  epochs  of 
the  year  :  these  are  the  tropics.  That  of  the  northern  hemisphere  is 
known  as  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  because  during  the  summer  solstice  the 
sun  passes  at  its  zenith  and  is  in  the  zodiacal  sign  of  Cancer.  That  of 
the  southern  hemisphere  is  known  as  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  because 
the  sun  passes  at  its  zenith  during  the  winter  solstice  in  the  zodiacal 
sign  of  Capricorn.  The  space  included  between  these  two  circles  com- 
prises that  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  over  which  the  sun  rises  to  its 
greatest  and  most  vertical  altitude,  and  sheds  forth  its  rays  with  the 
greatest  degree  of  intensity,  is  termed  the  torrid  zone. 

Two  other  circles,  distant  respectively  6G°  32'  from  the  equator,  or 
23°  28'  from  the  poles,  in  each  hemisphere,  mark  the  lines  below  which, 
the  sun  may  remain  for  several  days  together,  and  above  which  it  attains 
its  least  altitudes:  these  are  the  polar  circles,  which  include  the  frigid 
zones.  During  one-half  of  the  year,  the  sun  rises  above  the  polar  circles 
to  the  height  of  23°  28',  and  during  the  other  half  descends  below  them 
to  the  same  amount. 

The  temperate  zone  is  that  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  which  is  be- 
tween the  torrid  and  frigid  zones. 

The  areas  in  square  miles  of  the  respective  zones  is: — 

North  tropical  zone,  .  .  39,109,628  )  Warm  region, 

South        "  "    .  .  .  39,109,628)     78,219,256. 

North  polar         "    .  .  .  8,229,748  /  Cold  region, 

South      "  "    .  .  .  8.229,748)    16,459,946, 

North  temperate  zones,  .  .  51,110,763  )  Temperate  region, 

South         "  "  51,110,763)"         102,221,526, 

It  thus  appears  that  the  regions  most  favorable  to  mankind,  the  tem- 
perate regions,  are  far  the  most  extensive;  and  next,  the  warm  regions; 


58  HEAT. 

while  the  frigid  zones,  unsuited  for  human  progress,  extend  over  a  com- 
paratively inconsiderable  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 

In  the  regions  of,  and  near  the  equator,  in  both  hemispheres,  the 
various  causes  which  influence  the  action  of  the  sun's  heat  vary  but 
little  throughout  the  year.  The  day  has  about  the  same  length  all  the 
year  round;  the  meridian  height  of  the  sun  undergoes  but  little  varia- 
tion, and  the  four  seasons  differ  very  little  in  regard  to  temperature,  the 
one  from  the  other.  For  an  entirely  different  cause,  in  the  regions 
where  the  length  of  the  day  varies  very  much  in  the  course  of  the  year, 
or  where  the  meridian  height  of  the  sun  at  one  solstice  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  other,  the  seasons  are  very  dissimilar  both  to  the  north 
and  south  of  the  equator. 

The  angle  at  which  the  solar  rays  reach  the  surface  of  the  earth  are 
the  chief  cause  of  the  succession  of  climates  from  the  equator  to  the  poles, 
and  if  the  earth's  surface  were  perfectly  regular  in  shape  and  consistence, 
instead  of  being  divided  into  land  and  water,  forests  and  arid  plains, 
table-lands,  mountains  and  valleys,  etc.,  the  diminution  of  temperature 
would  be  progressive  and  regular.  These  irregularities  of  the  surface 
give  rise  to  the  various  differences  of  climates  in  the  same  latitudes,  and, 
under  the  influence  of  heat,  tend  to  maintain  a  perpetual  circulation  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  equalization  of  temperature.  Thus  the  trade- 
winds,  which  establish  a  double  current  between  the  equator  and  the 
poles,  temper  the  cold  of  the  high  latitudes  over  which  they  pass,  and  the 
heat  of  the  tropical  regions  where  they  arise,  heating  the  former  and 
cooling  the  latter. 

Gases  and  vapors,  as  before  shown,  possess  the  property  of  absorbing 
heat  rays,  and  consequently  the  atmosphere  absorbs  a  portion  of  the 
rays  transmitted  by  the  sun.  But  the  power  of  absorption  by  different 
gaseous  substances  greatly  differs.  Professor  Tyndall,  after  many  ela- 
borated experiments  on  the  absorptive  power  of  different  gases,  concludes 
that  on  an  average  day  the  water  present  in  the  air  absorbs  about  sixty 
times  as  much  heat  as  the  air  itself;  and  Professor  P.  M.  Garibaldi  has 
shown  that  the  absorptive  power  of  heat,  under  a  barometric  pressure  of 
39.92,  by  different  gases,  stands  in  the  proportion  of 

Atmospheric  air  (oxygen  and  nitrogen) 1 

Carbonic  acid 92 

Ammonia 546 

Vapor  of  water 7,937 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  actual  amount  of  heat  of  the  air  derived 
from  the  sun's  rays  in  their  transit,  compared  with  that  which  is  radiated 
from  the  earth's  surface,  is  very  small. 

The  lower  portions  of  the  air  are  heated  by  radiation  from  the  earth's 
surface,  communicated  by  convection,  and  to  this  source  may  be  traced 
the  greatest  portion  of  the  heat  it  exhibits.     The  greater  portion  of  the 


in:  AT. 

Bun's  rays  which  are  received  by  the  earth  are  deprived  of  their  power 
of  being  reflected  back  again  into  space  by  t  he  interposing  moisi  are,  and 
its  greal  capacity  for  heat. 

But  the  amount  of  specific  or  absolute  heat  which  different  sub- 
stances contain  greatly  differs,  although  their  temperature,  as  indicated 

by  the  thermometer,  may  appear  to  be  the  same.  If,  for  example,  two 
glass  tubes,  in  every  way  alike,  one  containing  mercury  ami  the  other 
water,  be  subjected  to  the  same  degree  of  heat  by  plunging  them  into  a 
vessel  of  hot  water,  the  mercury  will  attain  the  degree  of  the  surround- 
ing medium  in  half  the  time  the  water  will  take;  and  on  removing 
tubes  and  allowing  them  to  cool,  the  mercury  will  take  only  half  the 
time  to  recover  the  initial  temperature  as  the  water:  this  effect  ari 
from  the  difference  in  the  absorbing  power  of  the  two  substances,  mer- 
cury absorbing  less  heat  than  the  water  in  being  raised  to  the  same 
temperature;  or,  as  usually  expressed,  water  compared  with  mercury 
has  twice  the  capacity  for  heat. 

In  comparing  the  capacity  for  heat  of  different  substances,  it  is  usual 
to  take  equal  weights  of  each  rather  than  equal  volumes. 

A  pound  of  distilled  water  takes  a  certain  amount  of  heat  to  raise  it  a 
certain  number  of  degrees;  to  this  standard  other  substances  are  reduced: 
if  a  pound  of  mercury  requires  .033  of  the  same  degree  of  heat  to  attain 
the  same  temperature,  the  specific  heat  of  wrater  is  to  that  of  mercury 
as  1,000  to  33.  According  to  the  same  standard,  the  specific  heat  of 
various  substances  has  been  ascertained  to  be  as  folloAvs: 

Specific  heat 
Substances.  of  equal  weights. 

Water 1,000 

Ice 513 

Iron 113.8 

Copper 95.15 

Zinc 95.55 

Glass 198 

Mercury 33.32 

Lead 31.4 

Air 3,705 

The  great  capacity  of  air  for  heat  has  already  been  shown. 

The  aqueous  vapor  suspended  in  the  atmosphere,  though  it  may  ex- 
tend only  a  few  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  constitutes  a  moist 
stratum  which  as  effectually  retards  the  nocturnal  process  of  cooling  as 
the  whole  atmosphere.  Indeed,  the  most  striking  facts  in  connection 
•with  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  are  the  absorption  of  heat  which 
accompanies  the  transformation  of  water  into  vapor,  and  the  part  played 
hy  the  vapor  in  maintaining  the  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface.  This 
is  latent  heat.  It  is  so  named  because  it  does  not  affect  the  sense  of  touch 
or  the  thermometer:  it  mav  be  thus  illustrated: — 


60  HEAT. 

If  a  vessel  be  filled  with  ice  in  a  melting  state  and  subjected  to  the- 
application  of  heat,  a  thermometer  placed  ia  it  will  not  show  a  temperature 
above  32°  F.  till  the  Avhole  of  the  ice  is  melted:  not  till  then  will  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  begin  to  rise.  The  heat  thus  absorbed  by  the  ice 
in  passing  from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  state  has  therefore  become  latent.  It 
is  the  effect  of  the  same  property — the  absorption  of  heat  by  liquefaction — 
which  chills  the  air  during  a  thaw:  the  ice  and  snow  absorb  heat  from 
the  surrounding  air  during  the  process  of  melting. 

Evaporation  from  the  surface  of  water  proceeds  at  all  temperatures, 
and  goes  on  gradually  and  insensibly:  the  particles  of  water  rise  in  the 
air,  and  are  mixed  with  it,  and,  unless  they  exist  in  large  amount,  are 
invisible.  Whenever  evaporation  takes  place,  heat  is  absorbed  from 
some  contiguous  substance  to  supply  the  amount  which  becomes 
latent  in  the  conversion  of  the  liquid  into  vapor;  hence  evaporation 
is  always  a  cooling  process.  From  the  same  cause,  ether,  which 
evaporates  rapidly  at  a  low  temperature,  applied  to  the  surface  of 
the  skin  produces  the  sensation  of  cold;  and  the  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  surface  of  a  porous  jar  cools  its  contents;  but  in  this  case 
the  water  of  the  vessel  exudes  through  the  pores  and  forms  on  the  outside 
of  the  vessel  like  dew,  and  this  is  rapidly  taken  up  by  the  surrounding- 
air,  just  as  the  moisture  is  taken  up,  as  so  beneficially  experienced,  in  hot 
climates. 

The  insensible  evaporation  of  water  and  the  diffusion  of  its  vapor  in  the 
atmosphere  may  be  proved  by  exposing  a  shallow  vessel  out  of  doors  filled 
with  water:  in  a  few  days  of  dry  weather,  it  will  be  found  emptied  of  its 
contents.  If  the  surface  of  the  vessel  be  of  a  given  area,  say  one  square 
loot,  and  the  water  be  weighed  from  time  to  time,  the  loss  of  weight  will 
give  the  rate  of  evaporation  for  the  temperature  and  locality  for  one 
square  foot  of  the  surface. 

The  process  of  evaporation  is  always  going  on  on  a  large  scale  over  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  seas,  lakes,  rivers,  and  moist  surfaces  everywhere. 

The  absorption  of  the  heat  by  the  moisture  evolved  in  the  process  of 
evaporation  has  the  effect  of  cooling  the  surfaces  from  which  it  is  taken, 
but  the  temperature  of  the  vapor  is  not  thereby  sensibly  increased,  it  is 
latent;  but  at  such  a  degree  of  temperature  as  to  sustain  the  vapor.  The 
heat  which  is  thus  absorbed  is  destined  to  be  transported  to  the  most 
distant  latitudes,  and  to  establish  and  maintain  in  the  atmosphere  an 
equality  of  temperature  which  would  not  otherwise  be  produced;  it  is 
restored  to  the  earth  again  in  its  entirety  when  it  returns  to  the  liquid 
state  as  rain.  The  quantity  of  heat  which  thus  passes  from  the  equa- 
torial to  the  polar  regions  is  beyond  conception. 

The  smaller  the  amount  of  moisture  which  the  atmosphere  contains, 
the  more  easily  it  is  traversed  by  heat.  At  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet  and 
upwards,  the  increase  of  heat  in  the  sun's  rays  relative  to  the  temperature 
of  the  surrounding  air  becomes  a  marked  feature,  insomuch  that,  at  an 


HEAT.  CI 

altitude  of  from  6,000  i<>  L 0,000  Feel  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  ther- 
mometer exposed  to  I  he  raya  of  I  lie  sun  usually  registers  about  one-1  bird 
higher  than  when  in  ( he  Bhade. 

The  difference  between  the  indications  of  the  thermometer  in  the 
Bhade  and  in  the  sun  augments  with  elevation,  on  the  authority  of  Dr. 
Charles  Denison,  "  one  degree  greater  difference  between  the  temperature 
in  the  sun  and  shade  for  each  rise  of  235  feet."1 

But  the  general  result  of  altitude  shows  that  the  temperature  'In- 
creases about  lc  Fahrenheit  for  every  345  feet  elevation. 

Humbolt  observed  that  the  decrease  of  temperature  by  altitude  va- 
ries in  different  countries,  as  follows  : 

"The  decrease  in  a  southern  atmosphere  was  1°  F.  to  344  feet  in  the 
mountains,  and  440  feet  upon  the  table-lands.  A  series  of  places  in 
Southern  India  gave  320  feet;  in  the  north  of  Hindoostan,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  decrease  was  1°  in  410,  about  the  same  as  upon  the  table- 
lands of  America.  Everywhere  analogous  differences  of  level  are  re- 
marked; in  "Western  Siberia,  1°  in  450  feet  is  the  result  arrived  at,  and 
this  number  is  converted  into  440,  if  the  comparison  includes  the  ele- 
vated regions  of  Northern  India.  In  the  United  States,  the  decrease  is 
1"  to  every  400  feet.  The  configuration  of  the  country  seems  to  be  the 
most  important  element  in  the  calculation.  If  there  is  a  gentle  rise  in 
the  ground,  or  if  the  country  is  made  up  of  successive  gradients,  the  de- 
crease in  the  temperature  is  much  more  gradual  than  upon  the  sides  of 
steep  mountains.  In  the  first  case,  1°  may  be  taken  to  represent  a  dif- 
ference in  level  of  420  feet;  in  the  second,  of  350  only."  3 

Although  what  is  above  stated  in  regard  to  the  decrease  of  temperature 
on  the  increase  of  altitude  is  a  general  law,  in  hilly  regions  and  a  general 
prevalence  of  calm  weather  the  law  is  reversed;  the  cold  air,  by  reason 
of  its  greater  density,  descending  into  the  valleys,  and  the  warmer  rising  to 
the  top  of  the  hills.  If  there  be  wind  enough,  however,  to  create  a  dis- 
turbance and  intermixture  of  the  higher  and  lower  strata,  this  excep- 
tion to  the  general  law  does  not  occur.  These  facts  are  familiar  to 
observant  people  in  hilly  regions  generally,  but  they  have  not  been 
sufficiently  taken  account  of  in  meteorological  observations  to  render 
them  popular  for  the  protection  of  health.  The  damp  and  chilly  val- 
leys, with  their  attendant  ills,  arc  more  frequently  chosen  as  building 
places  than  the  dryer,  warmer,  and  healthier  hills. 

That  the  atmosphere  under  the  influence  of  heat  is  in  a  per- 
petual state  of  circulation;  that  the  sea  which  covers  three-fourths  of 
the  earth's  surface  is  distributing  temperature  to  every  shore;  that  there 
are  general  winds  which  periodically  traverse  the  different  regions  of 
the  globe  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  which  temper  at  once  the  cold 

1  "Rocky  Mountain  Health  Resorts,"  etc.,  p.  70. 
8  "  Aspects  of  Nature." 


62  HEAT. 

high  latitudes  in  their  course  and  the  heat  of  the  tropical  regions, 
warming  the  former  and  cooling  the  latter,  are  all  so  many  evidences- 
of  the  insignificance  of  mere  latitude  as  an  indication  of  temperature.  No- 
where in  the  world  does  this  insignificance  of  latitude  appear  more  marked 
than  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  nor  is  it  anywhere  more 
deserving  of  attention  with  relation  to  the  public  health. 

Seasoning  upon  latitude  as  an  index  of  the  general  course  of  clima- 
tological  differentiation,  the  natural  inference  would  be  that  the  ex- 
tremely high  temperature  which  occasionally  occurs  in  this  region  is  due 
to  the  transfer  of  the  heated  atmosphere  from  a  more  southern  latitude. 
But  the  facts  are  quite  the  contrary — the  temperature  in  that  direction 
at  such  times  is  frequently  lower.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  when  the 
temperature  reaches  the  nineties  in  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  New  York, 
and  Boston,  that  of  Charleston  and  Savannah  will  be  from  three  to  five 
degrees  lower;  and  in  the  interior  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  and. 
along  the  Gulf  coast  it  is  sometimes,  at  corresponding  periods,  still  lower. 

And  no  less  striking  is  the  opposite  extreme — the  Arctic  severity  of 
some  winter  days  or  weeks,  when  the  temperature  is  several,  and  some- 
times many,  degrees  higher  than  it  is  several  parallels  of  latitude  fur- 
ther north.  The  reader  who  carefully  studies  the  records  and  charts  in 
subsequent  chapters  will  not  fail  to  observe  that  there  is  a  general  move- 
ment of  the  climatic  changes  in  the  United  States  from  west  to  east, 
rather  than  from  the  south  to  the  north,  or  in  the  opposite  direction. 
Yet  these  excesses  of  heat  and  cold  rarely  or  never  occur  in  the  regular 
line  of  the  westerly  current  south  of  the  42d  parallel.  During  the 
summer,  the  Lake  district  and  British  America  north  of  the  42d  parallel 
are  warmed  by  the  westerly  winds,  but  south  of  the  38th  parallel  they 
seem  to  exercise  no  regular  influence. 

How  far  this  difference  is  due  to  floating  masses  of  ice  on  the  north- 
ern sea-coast  at  one  season  and  the  warmth  of  the  Gulf  Stream  uninflu- 
enced by  this  condition  at  another,  is  mere  matter  of  conjecture.  The 
fact,  however,  is  of  very  great  importance  in  its  sanitary  bearings,  espe- 
cially during  the  period  of  high  temperature,  as  possibly  accounting  for 
the  rise  and  spread  of  epidemic  diseases,  particulary  of  yellow  fever,  in 
extraordinary  localities  equalized  for  the  time  being  with  the  usual  habi- 
tat of  that  disease,  by  the  intensifying  effect  of  the  high  temperature 
on  local  conditions;  and  moreover,  for  the  same  reason,  a  special  source 
of  danger  in  regard  to  the  rise  and  spread  of  epidemic  diseases  of  various 
kinds  in  places  where  filth  is  tolerated. 

Considering  the  properties  of  the  atmosphere,  the  relations  of  land 
and  water,  and  the  variable  surface  of  the  earth  from  the  ocean  level  to 
the  greatest  altitudes,  it  is  clear  that  no  true  estimate  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  is  possible,  except  from  actual  measurement. 

Appreciating  the  necessity  of  something  more  definite  and  tangible 
than  the  zones  and  mere  thermometrical  records  at  different  places, 


IIKAT.  68 

Ilunibolt  marked  upon  a  map  all  the  points  at  which  reliable  thermo- 
metries! observations  had  been  made,  noted  the  degrees  recorded,  and 
then  traced  lines  passing  respectively  through  all  the  places  where  the 
mean  temperature  \\:i~  the  same.     These  ho  termed  isothermal  lines. 

During  the  sixty  years  which  have  since  elapsed,  similar  records  have 

been  multiplied  and  elaborated  bo  as  to  include  barometrical  pressure, 
the  direction  and  force  of  the  winds,  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  pre- 
cipitation, and  other  observations — as  shown  in  the  following  Chapters. 


CHAPTER  YIIL 
THE  WINDS. 

HOW    PRODUCED — TRADE   WINDS — INFLUENCE    OF    THE   SEASONS — TOPO- 
GRAPHICAL   INFLUENCES — RELATION   TO    CERTAIN    DISEASES. 

When  the  air  is  heated,  its  weight  is  diminished  and  it  ascends, 
whereas  that  which  is  colder  and  heavier  flows  in  to  supply  its  place. 
When,  for  example,  a  cloud  passes  over  the  sun,  the  air  that  is  situated 
in  the  line  of  its  passage  between  the  cloud  and  the  earth  is,  by  the  in- 
terception of  the  sun's  rays,  rendered  colder;  this  cooled  air  undergoes 
condensation,  and  by  reason  of  this,  it  flows  in  the  direction  of  the  cloud. 
The  hotter  and  more  expanded  air  next  to  it  rushes  in  to  supply  its  place 
and  a  current  is  established — this  is  wind. 

The  great  atmospheric  currents  at  the  equator  are  set  up  in  the  same 
manner,  and  in  virtue  of  the  same  law,  the  restoration  of  an  equilibrium. 

The  heated  air  of  the  tropics  ascends  into  the  higher  regions,  and  after 
reaching  a  great  altitude,  divides  and  flows  towards  the  respective  polar 
regions;  meanwhile  the  air  which  is  near  the  surface  of  the  sea  and  land 
on  both  sides  of  the  equator  flows  towards  it  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
ascending  current.  Thus  we  have  a  double  atmospheric  current  estab- 
lished over  the  entire  globe;  that  which  moves  near  the  surface  and  falls 
under  our  observation  constitutes  the  trade  winds.  The  ascending  and 
divergent  currents  are  termed  the  anti-trade  winds. 

While  the  trade  winds  are  observed  to  proceed  with  great  regularity 
in  and  near  the  tropics,  more  or  less  variable  on  account  of  the  relations 
of  land  and  water,  the  greater  the  distance  therefrom  the  more  dif- 
fuse they  become;  and  finally  in  the  temperate  and  more  northern  lati- 
tudes they  are  influenced  to  such  a  degree  by  topographical  conditions 
as,  under  some  circumstances,  to  appear  to  be  superseded. 

The  general  circulation  of  the  atmosphere,  it  seems  almost  unneces- 
sary to  remark,  is  influenced  by  the  seasons.  At  the  end  of  the  summer 
season,  the  polar  regions  have  for  several  months  had  days  without 
nights,  and  the  temperature  there  has  become  perceptibly  milder  and 
the  air  consequently  more  rarefied.  But  to  days  without  nights  succeed 
nights  without  days,  accompanied  by  increasing  cold  and  an  increasing 
draught  upon  warmer  latitudes  for  a  fresh  supply  to  fill  the  vacancy 


Illl.    WINDS. 


caused  by  condensation.  The  anti-trade  winds  How  with  augmented  vol- 
uiiii'  and  strength  to  supply  the  deficiency]  and  the  cold  surface-currents 
How  with  a  correspondingly  increased  impetuosity  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion— with  proporl ionate  perturbations  characteristic  of  winter. 

A-  the  .-mi  makes  its  way  back  again,  and  the  night  of  the  polar 
regions  is  changed  into  day,  tin-  atmosphere  again  expands;  the  equato- 
rial current  slackens  and  dissipated  its  atrength  over  lower  latitudes,  and 
summer  returns.  Each  of  these  changes  in  the  respective  hemispheres 
is  t  he  reverse  of  the  other;  there  is  therefore  a  complete  transposition  <>i 
the  atmosphere  with  every  change  of  the  seasons  from  the  northern  into 
the  southern  hemisphere,  and  vice  versa.  The  movement  of  the  atmo- 
sphere in  these  relatiens  is  well  illustrated  in  the  following  diagram  from 
Plammarion: 


Summer 


KoMKPole 


Scmi/iPole 


SECTION  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE  SHOWING  ITS  GENERAL  CIRCULATION. 


"  Two  leading  circumstances  cause  the  aerial  currents  to  travel  out 
of  the  limits  comprised  in  the  above  circuits,  and  give  rise  to  two  sec- 
ondary circuits  (N'  and  S');  these  are,  the  rotation  of  the  earth  upon  its 
axis  around  the  sun,  and  the  division  of  land  and  water  over  the  globe. 

"  The  earth  turns  upon  its  axis  in  the  direction  of  west  to  east.  In 
virtue  of  this  rotation,  every  point  of  it  completes  a  revolution  in  the 
same  period  of  twenty-four  hours;  but  in  this  interval  of  time  all  parts 
do  not  traverse  the  same  distance  or  move  at  the  same  rate  of  speed.  At 
the  equator  the  speed  is  about  41G  leagues  an  hour;  in  the  latitude  of 
Paris  it  is  273;  at  degree  5G  it  is  231 — as  at  Edinburgh,  for  instance;  at 
the  poles  it  is  nothing. 
5 


66  THE   WINDS. 

"  The  air  which  seems  to  us  to  be  in  repose  at  Paris  is,  in  reality  mov- 
ing there  at  the  rate  of  273  leagues  per  hour.  Let  us  imagine  this  air 
transported  to  latitude  56°  without  any  change  in  its  velocity;  it  will 
continue  to  travel  273  leagues  per  "hour.  As  each  point  in  latitude  56° 
travels  23 1  leagues  per  hour,  t"he  air  will  gain  upon  the  ground  in  an 
easterly  direction,  at  the  rate  of  42  leagues  an  hour  !  which  would  con- 
stitute a  hurricane.  The  reverse  would  be  the  case  if  a  mass  of  air,  rela- 
tively still,  in  parallel  56°,  were  suddenly  transported  into  parallel  492. 
This  air  would  appear  to  us  to  be  travelling  from  east  to  west  at  the  rate 
of  42  leagues  per  hour. 

"  In  reality  these  passages  of  air  from  one  parallel  to  another  always 
take  place  gradually,  and,  during  their  transition,  resisting  causes  of 
various  kinds  tend  to  equalize  their  velocity.  The  lessened  differences 
none  the  less  continue  in  operation,  and,  as  the  size  of  the  parallels  of 
latitude  diminishes  the  more  rapidly  on  approaching  the  poles,  the  ef- 
fects pointed  out  above  become  more  and  more  pronounced  as  they  occur 
in  high  latitudes.     Many  tempests  are  derived  from  this  cause."  ' 

"While  this  explanation  of  the  philosophy  of  the  winds  in  both  their 
origin  and  their  general  course  is  believed  to  be  the  correct  one,  some 
writers  prefer  to  account  for  the  winds,  of  the  temperate  latitudes  par- 
ticularly, by  the  uneqal  distribution  or  heat  and  of  land  surface.  In 
regard  to  such  views,  and  to  the  evidences  of  a  general  circulation, 
Blodget  observes: 

"  The  greatest  fact  of  evidence,  as  well  as  the  greatest  practical  point 
in  relation  to  the  subject  involved  here  is  the  constancy  of  westerly 
winds  in  the  middle  latitudes.  At  the  fortieth  parallel  as  an  average 
position,  and  on  the  isothermal  line  of  50°  for  the  mean  of  the  year  as 
a  central  line,  the  evidences  of  this  prevalence  and  constancy  are  over- 
whelming; and  if,  in  the  interior  of  the  continents,  there  is  a  period  or 
locality  where  they  are  interrupted,  it  is  but  an  exception  to  a  rule.  In 
truth  it  appears  that  such  interruption  only  occurs  in  the  months  of  ex- 
treme heat  or  extreme  cold,  and  then  it  is  not  known  that  the  exception 
embraces  more  than  the  immediate  surface  air,  leaving  the  upper  strata, 
as  is  so  often  evident  in  the  United  States,  to  pursue  a  regular  course 
from  some  westerly  point. 

"In  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  where  no  disturbing  land  areas  exist,  this 
west  wind  is  strongest  and  most  constant,  so  much  so  that  at  cer- 
tain seasons  sailing  vessels  cannot  make  the  passage  in  a  line  from  the 
British  islands  to  New  York.  The  isothermal  line  which  should  con- 
trol the  precise  direction  of  these  winds,  if  the  supposed  cause  be  the 
true  one,  here  runs  northeasterly,  and  the  prevalent  winds  have  the 
same  direction.  Their  resultant  would  be  quite  accurately  along  that 
line,  and  their  strength  and  violence  can  be  accounted  for  on  no  other 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  272. 


THE    WINDS.  67 

hypothesis  than  that  of  a  general  movement  of  the  atmosphere  east- 
ward. The  Bimple  facts  for  the  Atlantic  Ocean  alone  settle  the  question 
that  other  influences  than  those  relating  to  land  and  sea  simply,  or  than 
those  which  generate  a  sea-breeze  on  a  narrow  coast  and  a  monsoon  on 
the  border  of  a  great  continent,  enter  into  the  account  as  causes.  .  .  . 

"  The  resultant  at  all  observed  stations,  whether  estimated  numeri- 
cally or  observed  with  accurate  instruments  of  registry,  is  uniformly 
from  some  westerly  point,  and  the  average  of  positions  from  the  38th  to 
the  45th  parallel  in  the  United  States  is  from  due  west.  Prof.  Coffin 
has  accumulated  these  observations  at  great  labor,  and  has  deduced  their 
resultant  in  several  forms,  all  concurring  to  show  that  a  strong  and  uni- 
form westerly  movement  belongs  to  all  the  middle  latitudes  of  the  tem- 
perate zone,  and  one  stronger  indeed  at  the  east  coast  of  the  United 
States  than  in  the  interior.  If  the  cause  of  winds  here  lay  wholly  in  the 
local  contrasts  of  cool  and  heated  surfaces,  the  reverse  current,  or  one 
from  the  east  should  prevail,  for  the  summer  at  least. 

"So  far  as  this  belt  of  westerly  winds  is  concerned,  or,  more  prop- 
erly, of  atmospheric  movement  from  the  west,  which  may  be  felt  as  such 
winds  or  not  according  to  local  circumstances,  even  where  the  clouds  of 
a  moderately  high  stratum  are  steadily  from  the  west,  it  does  not  appear 
that  any  evidence  could  be  stronger  than  that  which  has  become  an  in- 
disputable part  of  the  general  knowledge.  It  is  cumulative  on  every 
hand,  and  it  would  weaken  rather  than  confirm  it  to  cite  partial  statis- 
tics. With  the  known  direction  that  all  storms,  either  general  or  local, 
take  in  the  United  States  above  the  32th  parallel,  it  is  superfluous  to 
seek  other  evidence  that  the  atmospheric  movement  is  from  the  west  in 
the  general  level  of  cloud  formation.  The  showers  and  cumulous  clouds 
of  summer  always  have  this  movement,  and  with  these,  as  with  the  gen- 
eral storms  of  winter,  it  is  of  no  consequence  what  the  course  of  the 
winds  at  the  surface  may  be.  Below  the  35th  parallel,  and  on  the  Gulf 
coast  only,  do  the  showers  of  summer  take  a  different  movement,  show- 
ing that  the  stratum  occupied  by  the  cumulus  of  average  height  does 
not  there  move  from  the  west,  but  from  the  east  or  southeast,  an  inflec- 
tion of  the  trade  wind  mingling  with  a  local  coast  wind.  .  .  . 

"  There  is  next  a  proof  that  such  a  circulation  exists  derived  from 
the  quantity  of  rain  deposited  in  the  temperate  latitudes,  and  particu- 
larly in  portions  of  them  which  are  obviously  beyond  the  reach  of  direct 
sea  air.  The  rains  of  the  Eastern  United  States  fall  mainly  from  the 
upper  or  westerly  cloud  in  all  cases.  It  is  seen  to  be  impossible  that 
it  should  be  otherwise,  when  the  phenomena  attending  it  are  considered. 
In  illustration  the  common  incidents  may  be  cited:  A  storm  may  begin 
at  Buffalo,  with  wind  and  clouds  from  northeast  or  southeast,  long 
before  it  is  felt  at  Albany,  and  though  the  sky  at  the  moment  is  so 
much  obscured  as  to  render  it  impassible  to  an  upper  cloud,  yet  a  care- 
ful observer  would  have  seen  such  an  upper  cloud  preceding  the  lower  in 


68 


THE    WINDS. 


formation,  and  from  which  the  water  must  necessarily  fall,  since  the 
lower  clouds  are  but  its  incident  and  attendant.  The  storm  may  be 
exhausted  at  Buffalo  before  it  is  known  at  Albany  or  Boston,  at  which 
places  the  sky  may  be  clear  and  the  wind  continue  westerly.  It  is  im- 
possible that  such  a  storm,  subsequently  being  transferred  to  Boston, 
should  receive  its  principal  supply  of  water  from  any  other  source  than 
the  mass  of  air  moving  from  the  west.  The  prevalent  westerly  winds 
must  therefore  be  largely  charged  with  vapor,  and  must  exhibit  a  nearly 
constant  precipitation  either  as  clouds  or  rain. 

"In  confirmation  of  this  view,  we  find  all  this  belt  of  westerly  winds 
to  be  a  belt  of  constant,  or  equally  distributed  rains.  Though  changing 
place  as  the  seasons  change,  the  region  of  monsoons  rarely  or  never 
comes  within  its  limit,  and  there  is  no  known  district  of  periodical  rains 
within  it  except  a  very  limited  line  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  this  the  season  of  interruption  is  very  short,  and  the  rains 
are  extended  into  spring  and  autumn.  The  west  winds  of  the  summer 
at  San  Francisco  are  an  exception  and  anomaly,  falling  in  the  latitude  of 
calms  for  summer,  because  of  the  extreme  contrasts  of  the  temperature 
of  the  sea  and  the  interior. 

"The  fact  that  this  belt  is  one  of  constant  precipitation  is  strong 
if  not  decisive  proof  that  it  has  a  supply  of  moisture  from  some  exterior 
source.  In  the  wide  belt  of  irregular  winds  and  calms,  and  of  trade 
winds  which  can  have  no  such  supply,  the  most  extreme  contrast  and 
irregularities  exist,  and  it  is  everywhere  characterized  by  periodical 
rains.  Having  no  uniform  supply  analogous  to  that  carried  to  the  tem- 
perate climates  by  the  returning  equatorial  current,  it  is  only  in  the 
alternation  of  seasons  and  of  positions  that  precipitation  occurs. 

"Accepting  this  as  the  theoretical  solution  of  the  winds,  or  atmo- 
spheric movements  rather,  of  the  temperate  latitudes,  the  analysis  of 
the  observed  results  is  easy.  "With  these  regular  movements  which  find 
a  general  expression  in  the  winds,  there  are  to  be  found  many  irregu- 
larities and  many  instances  of  abnormal  movements,  monsoons,  etc.,  as 
parts  of  the  general  effect  produced  by  the  positions  of  continents  and 
their  relation  to  the  distribution  of  heat  and  to  the  seas."  * 

Prof.  Gruyot  remarks  that: 

"  If  the  tropical  zone  is  that  of  constant  and  periodical  winds,  the 
temperate  regions  are  those  of  variable  winds,  for  all  the  year  round 
they  blow  alternately  without  apparent  rule  from  every  quarter  of  the 
horizon.  Two  winds,  however,  in  our  hemisphere,  the  N.  E.  and  the 
S.  W.,  are  more  steady,  and  so  commonly  prevailing  that  they  may  be 
called  the  normal  winds  of  the  temperate  latitudes.  The  N.  E.,  cold 
and  dry,  is  the  polar  wind  deflected  by  the  earth's  rotation;  the  S.  W., 
warm  and  moist,  is  the  returning  upper  equatorial  current,  which  grad- 

1  "  Climatology  of  the  United  States,"  by  Lorin  Blodget,  pp.  857-360. 


i  in:    WINDS.  69 

uallv  descends  and  reaches  the  aurface  about  the  30th  degree  ot  latitude, 
blowing  from  the  8.  W.  The  polar  or  equatorial  winds,  flowing  ride  by 
side,  or  one  above  the  other,  bul  in  contrary  conditions,  encounter  < 
other,  each  constantly  straggling  Corthe  mastery.  Their  fierce  battles 
are  our  never-ceasing  storms;  our  latitudes  their  battle  field.  They  con- 
trol the  weather.  The  S.  \V.  equatorial  brings  us  heat,  cloudiness,  and 
rain;  the  polar  winds,  clear  sky.  dry,  cold,  bracing  air,  and  sunshine. 
The  science  of  the  winds  is  the  science  of  the  weather."  ' 

Moreover:  "  It  is  fully  established  that  there  are  on  the  surface  of  tho 
earth  five  systems  of  winds,  which  roughly  correspond  with  the  zones  of 
climate  and  temperature,  and  that  the  boundaries  of  these  systems 
vary  in  latitude  with  the  change  in  the  declination  of  the  sun.  In  the 
torrid  zone  the  resultant  of  the  wind  is  from  an  easterly  direction  toward 
a  variable  middle  line,  giving  rise  to  what  are  called  the  trade  winds, 
in  the  temperate  zone,  the  average  direction  of  the  wind  is  from  the 
west;  and  again  in  the  arctic  and  antarctic  regions,  the  resultant  is 
from  an  easterly  direction;  and,  furthermore,  the  limits  of  these  systems 
ef  winds  are  connected  with  regions  of  high  or  low  barometer.  Thus, 
in  the  equatorial  regions,  the  barometer  above  the  middle  line  is  below 
the  average  height  of  thirty  inches,  while  along  the  northern  and  south- 
ern limit  of  this  region  there  is  a  belt  of  high  barometer,  and,  again,  on 
the  northern  and  southern  limit  of  the  winds  of  the  temperate  zone 
there  is  a  belt  of  low  barometer.  The  direction  of  the  wind  in  these 
several  regions  and  the  belt  of  high  and  low  barometer  are  referred  to 
the  unequal  action  of  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  rarefying  the  air  at  the 
equator,  causing  an  in-drawing  current  at  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
which  takes  a  westerly  direction  on  account  of  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  on  its  axis,  and  a  current  towards  each  pole,  which  from  the  same 
reason  has  a  direction  from  the  west.  The  equatorial  current,  cooling 
above,  descends  by  its  superior  weight,  at  the  northern  limit  of  the  trade 
winds,  producing  the  belt  of  high  barometer,  from  which,  in  opposite 
directions,  two  currents  move,  one  returning  towards  the  equator,  form- 
ing the  trade  wind;  and  the  other,  proceeding  northward,  having  a 
westerly  component  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  tends  to  move  in  a 
direction  from  the  west.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  a  portion  of  the 
upper  wind  from  the  equator  flows  entirely  to  the  pole,  and  there,  by 
cooling,  descends,  consequently  having  a  northeasterly  direction.  The 
point  of  union  of  these  two  currents  produces  an  upward  motion,  again 
giving  rise  to  the  northern  belt  of  the  lower  barometer."  3 

Dr.  Benjamin  Ward  Richardson  remarks — 

"That  certain  winds  are  provocative  of  certain  symptoms  of  disease, 
and  that  they  intensify  certain  symptoms  in  those  who  are  suffering 

1 "  Winds."    Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia. 
2  Smithsonian  Report.  1875,  p.  23. 


70  THE   WINDS. 

from  disease,  is  a  part  of  universal,  as  well  as  medical,  knowledge. 
Thus  the  southwest  wind  is  known  to  be  unfavorable  to  acute  inflamma- 
tory conditions  ;  the  north  and  northeast  winds  to  neuralgic  and  rheu- 
matic conditions  ;  while  the  drying,  cutting  depressing  east  wind  is  fatal 
to  those  in  whom  the  store  cf  vital  energy  is  very  low.  But  here  we 
are  wanting  in  the  precise  part  played  by  the  winds  as  causes  of  disease. 
It  is  not  obvious  that  the  winds  determine  the  origin  of  any  disease, 
and  whether  they  intensify  any  by  a  special  action  of  their  own,  inde- 
pendently of  heat,  cold,  moisture,  electrical  tension,  and  other  such 
active  influences,  remains  to  be  discovered.  .  .  . 

"On  the  general  subject  of  winds  and  geographical  distribution  of 
disease,  we  are  much  indebted  to  the  researches  of  Mr.  Alfred  Haviland, 
who  has  devoted  many  years  of  splendid  labor  to  this  investigation.  His 
inquiries  extend  particularly  to  four  classes  of  disease  ;  namely,  rheu- 
matism— its  concomitants  ;  heart  disease  and  dropsy;  cancer  in  females; 
and  pulmonary  phthisis. 

"  Kespecting  heart  disease  and  dropsy,  which  Mr.  Haviland  consid- 
ers are  almost  entirely  dependent  on  rheumatism,  he  infers  that : — 
wherever  the  sea  air  has  uninterrupted  access,  as  over  a  flat  country,  up 
broad  vales  or  valleys,  and  elevated  country,  we  find  a  low  mortality 
from  heart  disease  and  dropsy.  And  that,  on  the  contrary,  in  places 
where  the  tidal  wave  has  no  access,  where  the  rivers  run  at  right  angles 
to  its  course,  or  to  that  of  the  prevailing  winds,  there  is  the  highest 
mortality  from  the  same  causes  of  death. 

"Kespecting  cancer,  Mr.  Haviland  infers,  1.  That  the  hardest  and 
most  elevated  rocks,  or  the  most  absorbent,  like  the  oolite  and  chalk, 
are  the  sites  where  the  least  mortality  from  cancer  is  found. 

"  2.  That  along  the  river  courses  which  flood  their  banks,  seasonally, 
are  to  be  found  the  districts  in  which  the  highest  mortality  from  cancer 
takes  place. 

"  3.  That  wherever,  from  the  nature  of  the  rocks  forming  the  water- 
sheds, the  floods  are  much  discolored  by  alluvium,  and  where  from  the 
flatness  of  the  country  the  floods  are  retained  and  are  not  easily  drained 
off,  there  we  find  the  greatest  mortality  from  cancer  among  females. 

"  Eespecting  pulmonary  phthisis  or  consumption,  Mr.  Haviland  in- 
fers that  districts  with  sheltered  positions  yield  a  low  rate  of  mortality 
from  the  disease.  That  districts  with  a  general  aspect  favorable  to  the 
malign  influence  or  the  east  wind  yield  a  high  death-rate.  That  damp 
clay  soil  is  coincident  with  high  mortality;  and  that  the  elevated  ridges 
of  non-ferruginous  and  infertile  carboniferous  limestone  and  coral  forma- 
tion, and  elevated,  hard,  unfertile,  and  non-ferruginous  silurian  forma- 
tions, form  districts  of  extensive  high  mortality  from  the  disease.  That 
elevated  parts  exposed  to  westerly,  northwesterly,  easterly,  and  south- 
easterly winds  are  characterized  by  high  mortality.     That  a  sheltered 


THE    WINDS.  71 

position,  a  warm,  fertile,  well-drained  ferruginous  - < . i I  are  coincident, 
as  a  rule,  throughout  England  and  Wales,  with  Low  mortality  from 
phthisis."  ' 

1  "The  Field  of  Disease,  a  book  of  Preventive  Medicine,''  by  Benjamin  Ward 
Richardson,  M.D.,  L.L.D.,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  etc.,  pp.  55G-5o8. 


CHAPTEE    IX. 
ALTITUDE. 

DRYNESS  AND    ELEVATION  WITH   SPECIAL    REFERENCE  TO    PHTHISIS 

DETERMINATION  OF  DRYNESS — U.  S.  SIGNAL  STATIONS  RATED  IN 
ORDER  OF  DRYNESS — RELATIVE  BREATHING  CAPACITY  IN  DRY  AND 
MOIST   AIR — PHYSICAL   EFFECTS    OF   EXTREME    ALTITUDE. 

"Dryness  and  Elevation,"  according  to  Dr.  Charles  Dennison, 
one  of  the  most  accomplished  writers  on  climate  in  the  United  States, 
"are  the  most  important  elements  in  the  climatic  treatment  of 
phthisis."  '  He  bases  his  argument  upon  the  statement  that  "an  actu- 
ally small  amount  of  atmospheric  moisture  is  the  most  important  ele- 
ment in  the  best  climates  for  phthisis." 

This  proposition  he  essays  to  prove,  despite  the  "past  theories  and 
beliefs  of  the  great  body  of  the  medical  profession."  And  in  order  to 
be  logical,  apparently,  he  assumes  that  enervation  is  an  essential  condi- 
tion of  warmth  and  equability,  and  so  proceeds  to  defend  coldness,  vari- 
ability, and  stimulation — the  attributes  of  elevation  and  dryness — against 
enervation.  He  adopts  the  mean  of  inhabited  climates  as  to  change- 
ability, as  the  line  between  variability  and  equability,  and  remarks  : 

"  While  altitude,  wind,  and  exposure  have  much  to  do  in  determining 
the  variability  of  a  climate,  .  .  .  the  principal  index  of  this  character  is 
the  actual  humidity.  This  real  humidity  is  chiefly  governed  by  tempera- 
ture, for  the  air  can  hold  invisible  vapor  in  a  rapidly  increasing  amount, 
as  temperature  changes  from  cold  to  hot.  From  such  conditions  as 
solar  influence,  altitude,  latitude,  rain,  radiation,  winds,  exposure,  etc., 
the  temperature  of  the  air  is  determined ;  and  these  conditions,  with 
temperature  as  their  index,  determine  the  atmospheric  humidity.  It 
is  almost  permissible,  then,  to  say  climate  is  absolute  humidity,  so  much 
is  the  latter  the  key  to  every  attribute  of  the  former."  In  harmony 
with  this,  he  proposes  to  subdivide  climate  as  follows  : 

1.  Excessive  dryness  >  giying  variability. 

2.  Moderate  dryness  ) 


3.  Moderate  moisture 

4.  Excessive  moistui 


e  i  giving  equability, 
re  ) 


1  Paper  read  before  the  American  Climatological  Association,  May  3d,  1884.- 
New  York  Medical  Journal,  September  13th  and  20th,  1884. 


ALTITUDE.  7:> 

Taking  the  absolute  humidity  in  grains  of  rapor  to  the  cubic  foe 
air.  in  different  portions  of  the  United  States,  he  finds  that  with  very 
slight  corrections,  they  can  all   be  made  to  conform  to  the  following 
statement,  namely  : 

For  excessive  dryness,  4o  per  cent. 

For  moderate  dryness,  40  to  00  per  cent. 

For  moderate  moisture,  60  to  80  per  cent. 

For  excessive  moisture,  80  per  cent  and  over. 

"As  nearly  as  could  be  done,  a  third  of  the  rating  influence  was 
given  to  each  record  indicating  dryness  or  moisture,  and  the  mean  be- 
tween these  extremes  was  approximately  determined  to  be  sixty-seven  per 
cent  for  relative  humidity,  sixty-seven  percent  of  saturation  at  the  given 
temperature  of  the  place  for  absolute  humidity,  to  be  represented  in 
tenths  of  a  grain  of  a  vapor  to  the  cubic  foot  of  air,  and  forty-four  and 
a  half  per  cent  for  cloudiness,  zero  being  no  clouds  and  one  hundred 
constant  cloudiness." 

But  as  absolute  humidity  depends  upon  the  temperature,  to  avoid 
tedious  calculations,  he  formulated  the  following  rule,  and  adopted 
(Jlaisher's  table  : — 

"The  relative  and  absolute  humidities  and  cloudiness  in  hundreds  be- 
ing known  of  a  given  place,  find  the  grains  of  vapor  at  saturation  either 
by  working  it  out  from  the  first  two  or  by  referring  to  the  first  columns 
in  Glaisher's  table,1  and  then  take  40,  60,  and  80  per  cent  of  this  as  the 
dividing  lines  between  the  four  divisions  of  climate.  Then  correct  the 
absolute  humidity  for  the  place  to  be  rated  by  multiplying  it  by  100  plus 
the  excess  of  the  relative  humidity  above  the  mean  67  per  cent,  and 
plus  the  excess  of  cloudiness  above  the  mean  of  444/  per  cent,  or  by  100 
minus  these  differences  if  they  are  below  the  mean.  For  instance,  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  has  an  autumn  temperature  of  64 ",  relative  humidity  65.2, 
cloudiness  23  per  cent,  and  absolute  humidity  4.01  grains  to  the  cubic 
foot.  The  capacity  of  the  air  to  hold  moisture  at  the  temperature  given 
is  6.54  grains.  The  rating  divisions  then  are:  Excessive  dryness,  under 
2.64;  moderate  dryness,  2.64  to  3.95;  moderate  moisture,  3.95  to  5.27; 
and  excessive  moisture  above  5.27  grains.  The  correction  for  relative 
humidity  is  02,  and  for  cloudiness  21  per  cent,  which  gives  a  rating 
number  2.83  according  to  the  rule.  This  moves  Los  Angeles  from  mod- 
erate moisture  back  into  moderate  dryness,  its  more  appropriate  position 
for  that  season  of  the  year,  while  Washington,  D.  0.,  with  an  absolute 
humidity  of  3.73  grains,  because  of  both  relative  humidity  and  cloud- 
iness being  above  the  mean,  is  rated  forward  from  moderate  moisture 
into  extreme  moisture  for  the  same  season. 

"In  the  last  column  (4)  in  this  table  we  have  the  mean  of  relative  hu- 
midity (67),  the  mean  of  cloudiness  in  hundredths  (444-),  and  the  mean 

1  See  table  under  Moisture,  Ch.  IV7.— A.  N.  B. 


Y4 


ALTITUDE. 


The  Rating  Table  determining  the  Means  of  Dryness,  made  up  from 
67  per  cent  of  Saturation,  67  per  cent  for  Relative  Humidity,  and 
44£  per  cent  for  Cloudiness,  and  obtainig  One  Third  of  their  Sam. 
See  Column  (4). 


03 
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iher's    Table. — ■ 
eight  in   grains 
vapor  in  a  cubic 
Dt  of  saturated 

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column    (2)   in 
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vapor. 

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vapor  in  a  cubic 
ot  of  saturated 

p. 

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column   (2)   in 
nths  of  a  grain 
vapor. 

111 

1  ii 

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el 
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a 

slier  s     Table. — 
eight  in  grains 
vapor  in  a  cubic 
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r. 

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column  (2)  in 
nths  of  a  grain 
vapor. 

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35^  — 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(1) 
Deg. 

<2) 

(3) 

(4) 

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Deg. 

0 

0.545 

3.65 

38.4 

44 

3.32 

22.24 

44.5 

73 

.... 

56.8 

2 

38.5 

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44.8 

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9.10 

'60.97 

57.5 

4 

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5.17 

38.5 

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45.4 

76 

9.69 

64.92 

58.8 

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5.17 

38.9 

48 

3.88 

25.59 

45.7 

77 

59.5 

10 

39.0 

49 

46.0 

78 

10.31 

69.07 

60.2 

12 

6.916 

6.14 

39.2 

50 

4.10 

27.47 

46.3 

79 

.... 

60.6 

14 

39.4 

51 

46.6 

80 

l6.*98 

73.56 

61.2 

16 

1.090 

7.30 

39.6 

52 

4.38 

29.'42 

47.7 

81 

61.9 

18 

.... 

•   •   •   • 

39.8 

53 

47.4 

82 

11.67 

78.18 

62.7 

20 

1.298 

8.70 

40.1 

54 

4.71 

32.56 

47.8 

83 

63.5 

22 

40.3 

55 

48.1 

84 

13.40 

83.08 

64.3 

24 

40.5 

56 

5.04 

33.77 

48.4 

85 

•  •  •  > 

.... 

65.1 

26 

1.674 

11. 83 

40.9 

57 

48.7 

86 

13.17 

88.24 

66.0 

27 

41.4 

58 

5  [39 

35.*98 

49.1 

87 

66  9 

29 

1.892 

12.68 

41.4 

59 

•  •  •  • 

49.5 

88 

13.98 

93.67 

67.9 

30 

41.5 

60 

5.77 

38.66 

50.0 

89 

68.8 

32 

8.18 

14.87 

41.9 

fil 

50.4 

90 

14.85 

99.50 

69.8 

33 

42.1 

62 

6.17 

41.34 

50.9 

91 

70.8 

34 

2.30 

15.41 

42.3 

63 

51.3 

92 

15.74 

105! 45 

71.8 

35 

•  •  • 

42.5 

64 

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44.15 

51.7 

93 

72.8 

36 

2.48 

16.62 

42.7 

65 

52.3 

94 

16.'69 

iii!«2 

73.9 

37 

43.9 

66 

7.04 

47.17 

52.9 

95 

75.0 

38 

8.08 

17.88 

43.1 

67 

53.4 

96 

17.68 

118*.45 

76.1 

39 



43.3 

68 

7.'51 

50.33 

53.9 

97 

.... 

77.3 

40 

2.86 

19.16 

43.6 

69 

.  .  ■ 

54.6 

98 

18.73 

125.49 

78.5 

41 

43.8 

1  70 

8.01 

53.67 

55.3 

99 

79.7 

42 

3.08 

20.63 

44.0 

71 

55.7 

100 

19.84 

132!93 

81.0 

43 

44.2 

72 

8.54 

57.33 

56.2 

of  absolute  humidity  for  different  temperatures  (column  3)  added  to- 
gether, and  the  sum  divided  by  3  to  the  mean  of  all.  By  this  last,  the 
combined  mean  as  to  dryness  and  moisture,  all  places  can  be  compared, 
the  average  temperature,  relative  humidity,  absolute  humidity,  and  cloud- 
iness of  which  are  known  for  a  given  time.  The  rule  is  thus  simplified 
to  a  rating  table  for  all  climates.  For  instance,  Denver,  for  the  autumn 
of  1883,  with  an  average  temperature  of  50.4°  F.,  has  a  rating  mean,  ac- 
cording to  the  table,  of  46.3°,  while  the  record  shows  relative  humidity 
of  50.1°,  cloudiness  20  per  cent,  and  absolute  humidity,  in  tenths  of 
grains,    18.9.     A  third   of  these  three   is   29.7.     Denver  then  stands 


ai.mii:>i.  75 

to  the  mean   of  the   CJnited  States  !ot  thai  Beason  a 
or  L6.6  "ii  the  dry  side  of  the  mean.     New  York  City,  with  temperature 
58.9,  has  a  rating  number  of  47.8,  and  with  li.  II.  69.9,  cloudiness  51, 
and  A.  II.  .';•.'.'.».  gives  a  record  of  51.3,  or  3.5  on  the  moisl  side  of  the 
rating  mean  for  the  same  season.     Tims  continuing,  all  thi  for 

all  the  Signal  Service  Stations  in  the  United  States  were  rated.  I  then 
foiiinl  that  twelve,  or  L2  per  cenl  on  either  side  of  the  proper  mean, 
would  include  nearly  all  the  excesses  or  deficiencies.  Only  exceptionally 
moisl  or  exceptionally  dry  places  would  exceed  this  limit.  I  therefore 
gave  the  firs!  -;\  excess  or  deficiency  to  moderate  moisture  and  to  moder- 
ate dryness,  respi  ctivelyj  and  the  next  six  excess  or  deficiency  to  eztremt 
moisture  and  to  extreme  dryness,  respectively.  The  finally  accepted 
climatic  rule  fur  dryness  can  then  be  simply  stated  thus: 

■•  With  the  combined  mean  of  relative  humidity  and  cloudiness  per  cent, 
and  absolute  humidity  in  tenths  of  a  grain  of  vapor  (column  4).  compare 
one-third  ofthesum  oftheactual  records  given  of  the  same  attributes  for 
any  place,  and  the  difference,  plus  or  minus,  shows  the  rate  of  the  given 
climate." 

In  justification  of  this  arbitrary  rule  giving  nearly  one-third  of  the 
rating  influence  to  cloudiness,  he  observes:  "That  the  Signal  Service 
estimates  all  over  the  country,  both  of  temperature,  absolute  and  relative 
humidity,  are  taken  behind  the  blinds,  and  the  wonderful  influence  of 
the  sun,  the  source  of  every  thing  that  is  good  in  climate,  is  literally 
thrown  '  into  the  shade  '  by  what  we  have  hitherto  trusted  as  climate  rec- 
This  is  a  most  important  though  neglected  consideration,  espe- 
cially in  the  clear  air  of  such  climates  as  are  found  in  the  western  ele- 
vated plateaux,  where  the  powerful  effect  of  sunshine  is  quickly  recorded 
by  the  metallic  thermometer,  and  its  absence  as  remarkably  noted  in 
the  shade.  Were  it  not  that  sunshine  so  often  j^oes  hand  in  hand  with 
low  humidity  records,  I  should  be  in  favor  of  giving  it  more  rather  than 
less  influence  in  the  rating  of  climates. 

"  To  still  further  localize  each  climate  with  reference  to  others  in  the 
same  division,  I  subdivided  each  of  the  larger  into  three  smaller  divisions 
.  .  .  using  figures  1,  2,  3,  4  to  designate  the  four  divisions  of  climate, 
and  the  letters  a,  b,  c the  appropriate  thirds  in  each.  Iliad  ample  source 
from  which  to  choose  proper  climates  to  illustrate  the  discriminating 
operations  of  my  rule.   .   . 

"  As  it  is  during  winter  chiefly  that  the  invalid  must  have  a  change  of 
climate,  the  classification  for  that  season,  according  the  rule,  would  give 
a  very  desirable  table,  as  follows: 


76 


ALTITUDE. 


TABLE. 

Signal  Service  Stations  in  the  United  States,  rated  in  order  of  Dryness,, 
according  to  the  Climatic  rule  for  Winter  o/1883,  January,  Febru- 
ary, and  December,  with  Mean  Temperature  added. 


Stations. 


» 

; 

3 

i    7. 

S  ti 

S  ■» 

£   - 

Rate. 

o  a 

a 

""•c 

& 

0 

H 

55 

Stations. 


OF  EXTREME   DRYNESS, 


Yuma,  Arizona 

El  Paso,  Texas 

Denver,  Colorado. . . . 
La  Mesilla,  New  Mex. 
Cheyenne,  Wy.  Ter. . 
Fort  Davis,  Texas... . 
Los  Angeles,  Cal 
Santa  Fe,  New  Mex. . 
9  Prescott,  Arizona    . . 

10  Fort  Grant,  Arizona . 

11  Pioche,  Nevada 

12  Fort  Elliot,  Texas.. . . 

13  San  Diego,  Cal 

OF  MODERATE  DRYNESS. 

14:  West  Las  Animas, Col 

15  Bismarck,  Dakota  . . . 

16  Fort,  Stockton,  Tex. . 
17 1  Fort  Apache,  Ariz 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
2 


Camp  Thomas,  Ariz . 
Visalia,  California  . . 
Fort  Maginnis,  Mon.. 

Salt  Lake,  Utah 

Cape  Mendocino,  Cal. 

Yankton,  Dakota 

Fort  Assiniboin,  Mon 
Winnemucca,  Nev  . . 
Red  Bluff,  California. 
North  Platte,  Neb  . . . 

OF  MODERATE  MOISTURE. 

Fort  Benton,  Mon  . .  . 
Omaha,  Nebraska — 
Fort  Sill,  Ind.  Ter  . .  . 
Dodge  City,  Kansas.. 
Fort  Concho,  Texas. . 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Lynchburg,  Virginia. 

Pike's  Peak,  Col 

Davenport,  Iowa 

Sacramento,  Cal 

San  Francisco,  Cal  . . 

Portland,  Maine 

Huron,  Dakota 

New  London,  Conn. . 

Fort  Custer,  Mon 

Baltimore,  Maryland. 
Des  Moines,  Iowa  . . . 
Savannah,  Georgia . . 
Fort  Bennett,  Dak. . . 


lc  +  4 
lc  4-  1 

lc 

lc 

lc 

lc 

lc 

lc 

lb 

16 

lb 

la 

let 


2c 
2c 
2c 
2b 
2a 
2a 
2a 
2a 
2a 
2a 
2a 
2a 
2a 


3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3a 
3b 
3b 
3b 
3b 
3b 
3b 
3b 
3b 


51 


55.1 
45.0 

28.6 
43.4 
33.21 

43.3 
54.1 
30.1 
36.8 
43.0 
30.6 
!31.4 
54.3 


23.7 
5.8 
43.5 
35.7 
43.2 
45.2 
19.6 
28.0 
46.0 
14.5 
12.1 
27.9 
44.6 
29.3 


18.3 
19.4 
39.3 
26.7 
42.8 
17.5 
38.4 
3.1 
22.7 
45.4 
48.8 
25.3 
10.8 
29.4 
21.4 
36.0 
17.3 
55.0 
14.0 


47  Fort  Buford,  Dak... 

48  Eagle  Rock,  Idaho.. 

49  Boston,  Mass 

50  Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 

51  Chicago,  Illinois 

52  New  Orleans,  La. . . 

53  Block  Island,  R.  I... 

54  Dead  wood,  Dakota. 

55  New  Haven,  Conn. . 

56  La  Crosse,  Wis. . 

57  Jacksonville,  Fla 

58  Keokuk,  Iowa. . . 

59  Philadelphia,  Pa 

60  Palestine.  Texas. 

61  Fort  Smith,  Ark. 

62  Barnegat,  N.  J.. 

63  Leavenworth,  Kan 

64  Washington,  D.  C  . 

65  Cedar  Keys,  Fla. . . 


OF   EXTREME  MOISTURE. 

66  Cape  May,  N.  J. . : . . . 

67  Olvmpia^  Wash.  Ter. 

68  New  York  City 

69  Springfield,  Illinois.. 

70  Key  West,  Florida  . . 

71  Little  Rock,  Ark 

72  Albany,  New  York. . 

73  Vicksburg,  Miss 

74  Rio  Grande  City,  Tex 

75  St.  Paid,  Minnesota. . 

76  Eastport,  Maine 

77  Norfolk,  Virginia 

78  Montgomerv,  Ala  . . . 

79  Sandy  Hook,  N.  J  . . . 

80  Chincoteague,  Va  . . . 

81  Augusta,  Georgia 

82  Shreveport,  La 

83,  Milwaukee,  Wis 

S4  Pensacola,  Fla 

85  St.  Vincent,  Minn  . . . 

86'lndianapolis,  Ind 

87Lolusvme>  Ky 

88  Chattanooga,  Tenn . . 

89  Charlotte,  N.  C 

90' Wilmington,  N.  C. . . 

91|Moorehead,  Minn 

92  Kitty  Hawk,  N.  C  . . . 
93JMt.AVashington,  N.H 

94  Charleston,  S.  C 

95  Cape  Henry,  Va 

96,Toledo,  Ohio 


Rate. 


3b 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 
3c 


4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4a 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 
4b 


-M.  1  I  I  L  I  •!  . 

TABLE     Continued. 


77 


-  - 
at 

Stations. 

Rate. 

i 

= 

^5 
u    . 

■-  {- 
-I 

=  c 

.  - 

Stations. 

Rate. 

t 
2 

§ 

o 

- 

0 

55 

117 

9 

97 

46 

10.2 

Hatteras,  N.  C 

4c 

44.9 

98 

46 

80.6 

118 

BrOWnSVllle,  Texas.  . 

4c 

58. 1 

N 

Memphis,  Temi 

46 

42.1 

n -.i 

Oswego,  New  Yoik. . 

4c 

86.5 

100 

Smithville.  X.  C 

46 

4T..-> 

120 

Bscanaba,  Michigan  . 

4c 

14.8 

101 

Provincetown,  Mass, 

46 

80.2 

121 

( ialveston,  Texas  .  .  . 

4c 

54.5 

102 

46 

58.6 

122 

4c 

31.1 

103 

46 

44.4 

123 

Nashville,  Tennessee. 

4c 

i «;..-, 

104 

Lewiston,  Idaho 

}<• 

88.5 

124 

St.  Louis,  Missouri  . . 

4c 

28.9 

10.-) 

Mackinac  Citv,  Mich. 

4c 

19.2 

125 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

4c 

31.7 

106 

4c 

39.7 

126 

Roseburg,  Oregon 

4c 

:«».>* 

107 

Boise  Citv.  Idaho 

4c 

31.7 

127 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

4c 

34.7 

108 

Dayton,  Wash.  Ter. . 

4c 

'27.5 

128 

Cleveland,  Ohio..   . . 

4c 

85.6 

109 

4c 

36.2 

129 

Spokan  Flls,  Wash.T 

4c 

85.8 

110 

Columbus,  Ohio 

4c 

30.6 

L80 

Portland,  Oregon   ... 

4c 

38.8 

111 

Del.  Breakwater,  Del 

4c 

35.1 

181 

Grand  Haven,  Mich.. 

4c 

24.1 

112 

Port  Macon,  N.  0. . . 

4c 

45.8 

132 

Alpena,  Michigan 

4c 

18.2 

113 

Ac 

17.1 

133 

Erie,  Pennsylvania . . 

4c 

37.2 

114 

4c 

54.1 

134 

Rochester,  N.  Y  .   ... 

4c 

25.8 

115 

Helena,  Montana. . . . 

4c 

20.0 

135 

Buffalo,  New  York. . 

4c 

23.9 

116 

Detroit,  Michigan 

4c 

26.3 

136 

Port  Huron,  Mich  . . . 

4c 

20.9 

Dr.  Denison  next  briefly  considers  the  influence  of  temperature,  alti- 
tude, latitude,  the  seasons,  distance  from  the  ocean,  mountain  ranges, 
absorbing  power  of  the  earth,  variation,  diathermancy  of  the  air,  sun- 
shine, absolute  humidity,  relative  humidity  and  dryness  indicated  by 
variability  on  atmospheric  dryness;  and  concludes  with  citations  of 
numerous  authors,  and  a  summary  of  his  own  observations  on  the  physical 
effects  of  dryness.  After  referring  to  the  experiments  of  Valentin, 
Sanctorius,  Lavoisier,  Seguin,  Dalton,  and  others,  on  pulmonary  trans- 
piration, under  varied  conditions,  he  thinks  that  all  these  investigators 
have  missed  the  mark  he  aims  at — "'•'which  is  to  determine  the  amount 
of  moisture  exhaled  (above  that  inhaled)  in  a  dry  more  than  in  a  moist 
atmosphere.   .   .   . 

"Temperature  and  altitude,  with  distance  from  the  sea,  are  such 
powerful  agents  in  producing  dryness  that  it  is  well  for  us  to  divide  our 
own  inquiry — namely,  the  increased  pulmonary  transpiration  in  (1)  warm 
dry,  and  (2)  in  cold  dry  air. 

"First  in  warm  dry,  as  compared  with  warm  moist  air.  Let  us  choose 
Yuma,  Arizona;  and  Jacksonville,  Fla. ;  for  the  autumn  of  1883,  as  they 
both  had  the  same  mean  temperature  for  that  season — 71.3  .  Dalton 
assumes  in  his  calculations  that  the  air  passes  from  the  lungs  in  a  state  of 
saturation,  and  Draper  puts  the  dew-point  of  expired  air  at  94°.  Let  us 
assume  that  the  expired  breath  brought  down  to  94  is  saturated  with  vapor; 
that  an  ordinary-sized  man  breathes  eighteen  times  a  minute  (Quetelet) 
and  expires  twenty  cubic  inches  at  each  breath  when  at  rest  (Hutchison, 


78 


ALTITUDE. 


Flint,  and  others);  that  he  breathes  the  same  amount  of  air  in  Jackson- 
ville as  in  Yuma,  and  that  the  loss  by  breathing  of  TV  to  -V  in  volume 
(Davy  and  Ouvier)  is  made  up  by  the  expansion  of  the  air  in  the  lungs 
being  raised  from  71.3°  to  the  heat  of  the  body.  We  have  then  the  fol- 
lowing calculation: 


Yuma. 


Jacksonville. 


Mean  temperature 

Weight  of  vapor  with  air  saturated  (Glaisher)..  8.33  grains. 

Mean  relative  humidity .428 

Air  breathed  in  24  hour 300  cubic  feet 

Vapor  inhaled  in  24  hours 1,070  grains. 

Vapor  exhaled  in  24  hours,  with  dew-point  at 

94= 5,007  grains 

Vapor  exhaled  more  than  inhaleled  in  25  hours.  3,937  grains 


n.i 


71.3° 
8.33  grains 

.774 
300  cubic  feet. 
1,924  grains. 

5,007  grains. 
3,073  grains. 


Excess  for  Yuma  over  Jacksonville,  864  grains  a  day. 

.  .  .  "  Crawford  has  shown  by  experiments  that  the  exhalation  of 
carbonic  acid  from  the  lungs  is  much  greater  in  low  than  in  high  tem- 
peratures, and  Draper  says  twice  as  much  carbonic  acid  is  liberated  with 
a  temperature  at  68D  as  at  106,  while  Lehmann  '  has  likewise  shown  that 
exhalation  of  carbonic  acid  is  greater  in  a  moist  than  in  a  dry  atmosphere, 
temperature  remaining  the  same."  Therefore  we  are  compelled,  in  order 
to  favor  the  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid,  to  take  our  dryness  with  a  favor- 
able cold  temperature.  This  leads  us  to  the  more  important  compari- 
son— that  between  warm  moist  and  cold  dry  air.  It  is  here  that  altitude, 
distance  from  the  sea,  etc.,  come  in,  as  they  produce  both  the  coldness 
and  the  dryness  we  need. 

"  Let  us  choose  Denver  and  Jacksonville  for  the  autumn  of  1883,  and 
give  Denver  the  benefit  of  one-fifth  greater  amount  of  air  breathed,  the 
air  there  being  about  one-fifth  rarefied.  This  will  account  for  the  deeper 
and  more  frequent  respirations  and  the  corresponding  greater  activity  of 
the  heat  in  ordinary  life,  but  not  for  the  greater  increase  under  severe 
exercise,  like  climbing  hills,  etc. 

"We  will  assume  as  breathing  in  both  places  a  good-sized  man,  thirty 
years  old,  breathing  eighteen  times  a  minute  at  sea-level,  and  expiring  an 
average  of  thirty  cubic  inches  (Dr.  Grehaut),  ordinary  exercise  in- 
cluded: 


1  "  Physiological  Chemistry,"  Philadelphia,  1855,  vol.  ii.,  p.  414. 

*  Dr.  Lombard,  of  Geneva,  in  a  paper  presented  to  the  International  Congress 
of  Hygiene,  September,  1882,  concludes  that  "in  the  altitudes  the  digestion,  the 
muscular  exercise,  and  the  lowering  of  the  temperature  increase  and  accelerate 
the  exhalation  of  carbonic  acid." 


Mil  i  i  DE. 


79 


Arn  US 


M.ui  temperature 

Weight    at   saturation  for  given  temperature 

grains  in  a  given  foot 

Mean  relative  humidity 

Amout  of  air  breathed  in  21  hours -J 

Vapor  Inhaled  in  twenty-four  hours 

Vapor  exhaled  in  24  hours  at  94°  dew-point  ... 
Vapor  exhaled  above  that  inhaled  in  24  hours. 


Denver. 


50. 1 

4.44 
.601 

988,120  cub.  in., 
or  640  cub.  it. 
1,461  grains. 
9,Ob5  grains. 
7,0.12  grains. 


Jackjbonvii.i.k. 


71.8 

8.33 

Mf    I 

777,000  cub.  in. 
or  45(1  cub.  ft. 
2,901  grains. 
7,5ki  grains. 
4,699  grains. 


Denver's  excess  in  transpiration,  2,453  grains,  or  of  ounces,  or  lj  gills, 

••  This  would  amount  to  over  six  ounces  or  one  and  a  half  gill,  if  the 
considerable  expansion  of  the  air  in  being  raised  in  the  lungs  from  50  to 
accounted  for  at  Denver. 

"  Denver  and  Cedar  Keys,  compared  in  the  same  way  for  last  winter 
(1883-84),  results  in  2,935  grains,  or  If  gills  more  moisture  being  ex- 
haled from  the  lungs  in  Denver  than  in  Cedar  Keys." 

••  Now,  I  wish  to  ask/'  Dr.  Denison  queries  in  conclusion,  "Does  i^ 
not  stand  to  reason  that  this  transpiration  of  surplus  vapor  is  a  most  ad- 
mirable vehicle  for  carrying  away  effete  matter,  wasted  tissue,  and  the 
germs  of  disease  (bacilli)?  Is  it  a  wonder  that  thirst  for  fluids,  an 
appetite  for  food,  as  well  as  the  ability  to  digest  it,  are  greatly  increased 
in  all  those  who,  coming  to  the  elevated  interior  of  our  continent,  can 
stand  the  strain  without  disturbance  of  the  nervous  system? 

' '  If  the  foregoing  conclusions  are  reasonable,  can  you  not  imagine  the 
decided  influence,  especially  upon  the  respiratory  activity  and  function, 
caused  by  climbing  the  hills  and  mountain-sides  in  Colorado,  when  '  one 
at  sea-level,  walking  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  an  hour,  consumes  three 
times  as  much  air  as  when  at  rest '  (Dr.  Edward  Smith)  ?  " 

The  foregoing  theories  and  conclusions  of  Dr.  Denison  are  given, 
not  because  we  indorse  them,  as  may  reasonably  be  inferred  from  what 
we  say,  further  on,  of  the  salubrity  and  ionic  effects  of  the  atmosphere 
at  sea  and  in  forests,  where  it  is  essentially  humid,  but  for  the  special 
value  of  his  deductions  and  classification  of  the  climates  of  the  United 
States  according  to  their  relative  degrees  of  humidity. 

As  still  further  illustrating  the  physical  effects  of  altitude  and  dryness, 
with  a  view,  to  its  wholly  impartial  consideration  from  a  strictly  scien- 
tific point  of  view,  under  the  most  extraordinary  circumstances,  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  an  official  report  by  Medical  Inspector,  Benjamin  F. 
Gibbs,  U.  S.  Navy,  on  the  Medical  Topography  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of 
South  America,  will  not  fail  to  be  of  interest  and  practical  utility. 

"  The  medical  topography  and  climate  of  this  west  coast  present 
many  peculiarities  which  excite  continually,  in  the  mind  of  the  medical 
traveller,  an  unfailing  interest,  on  account  of  their  direct  and  visible 


80  ALTITUDE. 

effects  upon  the  animal  economy.  The  climate  of  the  city  of  Arequipa 
is  peculiarly  dry,  on  account  of  its  situation  amid  the  surrounding  desert 
of  Atacama,  and  cold  on  account  of  its  altitude  of  8,000  feet.  These 
peculiarities  give  the  city  some  celebrity  in  both  Chili  and  Peru  on  ac- 
count of  some  wonderful  cures  which  are  said  to  have  occurred  there, 
of  persons  who  had  suffered  from  tubercles  of  the  lungs.  I  have  known 
several  apparently  hopeless  cases  recover  after  a  residence  there  of  only 
six  or  eight  months,  and  then  return  to  their  homes  in  Chili.  The  fine 
stream  of  water  which  runs  through  the  city  causes  the  soil  which  is 
irrigated  by  it  to  yield  abundantly,  so  that  the  supply  of  good  whole- 
some food  is  abundant,  and  which  must  always  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration along  with  other  comforts  when  persons  who  are  suffering  from 
consumption  of  the  lungs  are  seeking  the  benefits  of  a  change  of  climate. 

"Arequipa  resembles  in  climate  another  place  in  Peru,  the  town  of 
Jauja,  which  is  situated  about  120  miles  east  of  Lima,  and  beyond  the 
western  Cordillera.  The  place  contains  about  15,000  inhabitants  of 
mixed  races,  enjoys  a  bracing  climate,  and  is  the  great  sanitarium  of  the 
Peruvian  capital.  Its  clear  blue  sky  covers  this  mild  climate,  and  a 
temperature  never  varying  from  50°  to  60°  Fah.  Dr.  Fuentes,  of  Lima, 
says  Jauja  has  always  been  the  refuge  of  consumptive  patients,  and 
lengthened  experience  has  demonstrated  the  favorable  results  of  this  cli- 
mate. The  proportion  said  to  have  recovered,  of  the  total  number  of 
patients  sent  to  Jauja,  amounts  to  79£  per  cent.  In  view  of  so  favor- 
able a  result,  the  government  initiated  there,  in  18G0,  a  hospital  for  con- 
sumptives, but  which  never  reached  any  degree  of  perfection  on  ac- 
count of  financial  embarrassments. 

"Among  other  peculiarities  of  climate  are  those  causing  the  "aire," 
and  which  are,  perhaps,  more  strikingly  exhibited  in  Peru  than  in  Chili. 
A  most  singular  illustration  of  its  effects  was  given  me  by  Dr.  Heath, 
who  is  the  surgeon  employed  on  one  of  the  Peruvian  railroads  now  build- 
ing from  Packasmayo  to  the  Andes.  While  making  this  trip  over  the 
road  with  him,  he  informed  me  that  the  visible  effects  of  this  existing 
cause  were  quite  common  in  his  experience.  He  mentioned  an  incident 
he  witnessed  far  up  on  the  line  of  this  road.  He  experienced,  one  day, 
as  he  approached  a  party  of  workmen  on  the  road,  a  severe  and  sudden 
pain  in  his  side,  causing  him  to  "double  up."  He,  however,  managed 
to  walk  on,  and  one  of  the  workmen  hailed  him  to  stop  and  see  several 
men  who  were  ill,  and  had  been  taken  that  instant  with  severe  pains,  etc. 
What  was  still  more  wonderful  in  his  statement  of  coincidences,  but 
which  has  since  been  vouched  for  by  others,  was,  that  at  the  same  mo- 
ment he  felt  this  pain  he  saw  two  birds,  which  were  flying  over,  fall  to 
the  ground,  and  were  picked  up  dead.  The  ordinary  effects  of  aire  are 
a  paralysis  of  the  cutaneous  nerves  and  redness  of  the  skin  from  dilata- 
tion of  the  capillaries.  This  effect  on  man  might,  if  exerted  upon  a 
bird,  produce  sufficient  shock  to  cause  death. 


AI.III  II.  I  . 


81 


"  It  is  uol  astonishing  ko  sec  a  resull  of  this  kind  realized,  when  ire 
consider  thai  Packasmayo  isalmosl  anderthe  equator.  It  is  subjected 
to  a  temperate  climate,  while  it  is  anderthe  influence  of  a  torrid  sun. 
Could  anything  be  better  arranged  to  evolve  strong  electrical  currents 
where  Buch  positive  degrees  of  heat  and  cold  meet  on  such  sharp  lines? 
The  Btrataof  air  indeed,  under  Buch  circumstances,  must  exist  in  various 
directions  and  in  wild  contortions.  The  most  natural  arrangement  one 
would  conclude  to  exist  is  that  tin-  alternating  strata  of  hot  and  cold  air 
rest,  as  it  were,  on  their  edges,  their  length  running  north  and  south,  in 
the  direction  of  the  isothermal  lines.  Were  such  the  case,  the  least  un- 
dulation of  such  long  flowing  lines,  defined  by  such  sharp  boundaries, 
would  deflect  at  one  time  cold  and  at  another  hot  air  upon  an  animal 
structure,  causing  violent  reflex  action,  shock,  paralysis,  or.  as  in  the 
above  instance,  the  death  of  the  birds.  These  intense  effects,  be  it 
observed,  occur  usually  at  great  altitudes,  the  milder  effects  at  a  lower 
level. 

••  I  must  hasten  to  notice  the  special  effects  of  the  rarefaction  of  air 
in  the  localities  in  question  up  m  the  animal  economy,  as  has  been  illus- 
trated and  most  satisfactorily  studied  during  and  since  the  construction 
of  the  Oroya  Railroad  by  Mr.  Henry  Meiggs,  the  only  one  in  the  world 
reaching  the  altitude  of  15,640  feet.  I  give  the  following  particulars 
regarding  the  effects  of  rarefied  air  from  my  own  experience  on  this  road, 
and  from  the  written  and  oral  statements  of  Dr.  G.  A.  Ward,  who  has 
been  employed  professionally  on  the  road  since  its  beginning. 

"  The  labor  employed  in  building  this  road  was  principally  the  native 
Peruvians  of  the  mountains,  who  are  a  short,  thick-set  race  called  v  - 
ranos,  and  have  immense  lung  capacity.  Mr.  S.  W.  North,  civil 
engineer,  made  some  measurements  of  these  Serranos  at  Yaulivacu.  an 
altitude  of  16.000  feet,  as  follows: 


Age. 


Inches. 

14  years 36 

24  years 36 

21  years 35 

16  years 34i 

30  years 34} 


Height. 


■:;■  = 

—  "E  r  ■ 

fessg 

~-  =  i 

.-  z  -  — 


a  a 

Tl  -  z 

'=  °  - 

—  ■—  r. 

—  V 

c  — — 
gag 
S3.5 

< 


Inches. 
72 
72 
70 
69 
69 


Ft. 
4 
5 
5 
5 


in.      in. 

10    =5* 
6i  =  66^ 
4"  =  64' 
0    =60 

4^  =  GU 


14 
5* 

6" 
9 

4i 


Average  difference  in  height  between  European  and  Serrano,  7*  inches. 
6 


82  ALTITUDE. 

"  This  enormous  increase  in  size  of  the  chest  is  owing  to  the  rarefaction 
of  the  air  in  which  these  natives  live,  enabling  them  to  undergo  an 
active,  and  even  laborious,  existence  at  these  great  altitudes.  American 
engineers  employed  in  building  the  road  increased  their  lung  capacity 
during  their  labors.  One  of  these,  Mr.  John  Malloy,  informed  me  that 
the  measurement  of  his  chest  had  been  increased  four  inches  in  two  years 
by  exposure  to  rarefied  air  in  these  Andes. 

"  This  peculiarity  of  adaptation  to  the  demands  of  nature  enables  these 
people  to  overcome  the  pains  and  inconveniences  which  are  experienced 
by  persons  who  ascend  the  Andes  for  the  first  time  toward  their  sum- 
mits, and  which  are  known  under  the  names  of  soroche,  veta,  puna,  etc. 
These  symptoms  indicate  a  diminished  supply  of  oxygen,  but  more  par- 
ticularly a  diminished  pressure  of  air  on  the  surface  of  the  body  and  on 
the  interior  of  the  lungs. 

"  The  pressure  at  the  sea-level  constantly  diminishing  as  you  ascend,. 
is  found  to  be  reduced  to  about  one-half  at  an  elevation  of  16,000  feet,  or 
the  summit  tunnel  of  the  Oroya  Railroad.  This  withdrawal  of  pressure 
often  occasions  the  most  severe  symptoms  of  vertigo,  headache,  nausea, 
and  vomiting,  all  more  or  less  alarming,  and  attended  with  profound 
prostration.  The  whole  are  attended  with  increased  respiration  and 
rapid  action  of  the  heart.  Dr.  Ward  says  some  are  affected  with  fearful 
nausea  and  vomiting,  comparing  it  to  the  worst  form  of  sea-sickness. 
Others  suffer  from  severe  frontal  headache,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  etc. 
From  the  violence  of  the  heart's  action  it  really  seems  at  times  as  if  it 
would  burst  the  walls  of  the  chest.  Occasionally  severe  hemorrhage  oc- 
curs from  all  the  avenues  of  the  body. 

"  The  respirations  are  increased  from  three  to  five  times  a  minute. 
Dr.  "Ward  says  he  has  counted  43  respirations  and  148  pulse  in  a  minute  at 
an  elevation  of  only  9,000  feet,  and  that  the  pulse  is  al ways  increased  in 
frequency  but  not  in  volume.  A  person  who,  at  the  sea-level,  has  a 
pulse  of  75  per  minute,  would  find  it  increased  about  teu  beats  at  an  alti- 
tude of  10,000  feet,  and  would  experience  ten  additional  beats  for  each 
1,000  feet  of  added  altitude.  The  rule  is  that  no  one  passes  for  the  first 
time  an  altitude  of  16,000  feet  whose  pulse  does  not  mount  to  from  130 
150  beats  in  a  minute. 

"  These  increased  numbers  of  pulsations  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
avert  a  fatal  result.  The  attending  increased  respiratory  action  is  not 
accompanied  with  increase  of  secretions,  but  an  increased  amount  of  air 
of  inferior  quality,  from  actual  reduction  of  the  amount  of  oxygen,  fails 
to  aerate  or  properly  preserve  the  fluidity  of  the  blood. 

"  Most  persons,  I  feel  convinced,  attach  an  undue  importance  to  the 
actual  diminution  of  the  quantity  of  oxygen,  per  se,  required  by  the 
human  and  animal  economy  generally,  resulting  in  soroche.  We  know 
that  animal  life  suffers  no  such  violent  symptoms  as  are  constantly  ex- 
hibited in  soroche,  when  it  is  at  times  deprived  of  a  large  proportion  of 


AI.T1  I  I   I'l  .  S3 

its  oxygen,  as  under  battened  batches  on  Bhipboard,  or  when  air  is  but- 
eharged  with  smoke  or  strain  in  which  people  are  obliged  to  lire  at  or 
Dear  the  sea-level.  It  must  be  remembered  thai  Bymptoms  of  soroche, 
above  described,  overtake  one  as  he  Bits  quietly  in  a  comfortable  car,  or 
more  frequently  at  night.  It  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  affection 
that  one  may  Lr"  to  bed  feeling  not  fche  slightest  inconvenience,  and  will 
be  awakened  at  midnight  with  the  mosl  agonizing  headache,  vomiting, 
and  a  gasping  for  breath  which  seems  to  point  to  impending  Buffocation. 

••  A  better  explanation,  it  seems  to  me,  and  one  which  more  completely 
explains  all  of  the  symptoms,  may  be  found  by  ascribing  more  of  the 
cause  to  a  withdrawal  of  the  pressure  from  the  body.  The  immense  re- 
duction of  one-half  the  accustomed  pressure  from  the  body  within  a  few 
hours  allows  a  determination  of  blood  to  the  viscera  and  extremities,  so 
that  there  is  actually  less  blood  inactive  circulation,  and  the  contractions 
of  the  heart  are  probably  made  when  that  organ  is  but  partly  filled  with 
blood.  This  would  account  for  the  increased  action  of  the  heart,  without 
seeking  a  more  important  or  satisfactory  cause  in  the  loss  of  oxygen  due 
to  a  rarefied  condition  in  the  air. 

••  With  this  withdrawal  of  blood  to  the  capillaries,  it  is  easy  to  ac- 
count for  headache,  nausea  and  vomiting,  syncope,  and  other  threatening 
symptoms  derived  from  the  brain  and  nervous  centres.  We  must,  hence, 
regard  the  brain  as  being  in  an  anaemic  condition,  and  is  thus  denied  its 
usual  stimulus  on  account  of  being  inclosed  in  its  rigid  bony  case,  where 
the  direct  influence  of  the  withdrawal  of  external  pressure  is  not  felt,  as 
in  the  other  soft  parts  of  the  body.  The  co-ordinating  power  of  the 
brain  is  thus  lost  in  consequence  of  the  distant  distribution  of  the  blood 
to  those  organs  which  are  directly  affected  by  the  removal  of  external 
pressure,  ami  in  which  an  increased  supply  of  blood  produces  no  dis- 
turbance of  function  beside  that  of  mechanical  distention.  Hence  all 
of  those  painful  symptoms  which  are  referable  to  the  anaemic  condition 
of  this  part  of  the  vital  tripod. 

"Dr.  Ward  says  the  persons  most  disposed  to  soroche  are  those  with  a 
large  amount  of  blood  in  the  body;  for  example,  stout,  florid,  muscular 
men  usually  suffer  most  severely.  A  popular  illusion  regarding  soroche 
is  that  persons  with  large  lungs  are  less  liable  to  it  than  those  with  small, 
feeble  lungs.  The  special  liability  of  stout,  large-chested  men  to  soroche 
is  most  satisfactorily  accounted  for,  if  we  admit  that  the  removal  of 
the  external  pressure  is  the  principal  factor  in  producing  this  affection. 
The  large  expanse  of  surface  and  large  viscera,  by  becoming  temporary 
receptacles  for  an  increased  amount  of  blood,  act  by  withdrawing  so 
much  from  the  active  circulation,  causiug  direct  anaemia  of  the  great 
nerve  centres.  The  brain  is  no  longer  a  plenum.  The  heart  is  deprived 
of  its  normal  stimulus,  and  in  its  enfeebled  condition  resorts  to  increased 
action  to  supply  urgent  demands  in  the  economy,  but  not  for  an  increase 
of  oxygenated  blood  particularly. 


84  ALTITUDE. 

"  Aii  instance  is  related  of  a  party  which  passed  an  entire  year  at  G-a- 
lera,  which  is  the  summit  tunnel  of  the  Oroya  road,  and  has  an  elevation 
of  15,645  feet.  This  party  of  engineers,  upon  visiting  Lima,  all  suffered 
severely  for  several  days  before  becoming  again  accustomed  to  the  dense 
air  of  the  sea  coast.  The  theory  of  Dr.  "Ward  and  others,  in  attributing 
this  suffering  to  a  change  in  the  quality  of  the  air,  whereby  an  excess 
of  oxygen  was  introduced  into  the  blood,  would  not  account  for  the 
syncope  in  his  own  case  in  Lima,  where  there  was  a  sudden  call  by  tele- 
graph for  his  services,  which  obliged  a  descent  of  16,000  feet  in  two 
hours.  His  theory,  that  in  this  descent  there  is  a  "liability  of  the  air- 
vesicles  to  collapse,  and  the  retention  of  foul  matters  within  them  ,s  a 
cause  of  disease/'  is  hardly  tenable,  because  an  increase  of  density  pro- 
vides an  increase  of  oxygen,  and  an  increased  aeration  of  the  blood  within 
defined  limits;  so  that  the  increase  of  vesical  surface  acquired  by  resi- 
dence in  an  attenuated  air  could  exert  no  other  than  a  proper  result, 
even  were  the  transformation  of  a  reduction  of  surface  to  be  wrought 
instantly.  A  considerable  period  might  elapse  without  any  reduction  of 
this  increased  aerating  surface,  and  without  any  injurious  effect. 

"  Supposing  a  denser  air  to  be  breathed,  no  increased  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen would  be  absorbed,  as  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  in  breathing  an 
increased  quantity  of  oxygen  gas  no  more  is  used  in  the  lungs  than  is 
necessary  for  the  production  of  watery  vapor  and  carbonic  acid  gas  in 
eliminating  carbonaceous  matter  from  the  blood. 

"  But  after  making  this  sudden  descent,  which  is  often  done  in  a 
hand-car,  at  the  rate  of  forty  to  sixty  miles  an  hour,  by  resorting  to  the 
theory  of  increased  pressure  upon  the  body,  the  symptoms  are  more  satis- 
factorily explained.  The  long  "residence  at  the  summit  provoked  an  in- 
creased vital  contractility,  which  is  inherent  in  all  vital  tissues,  and 
pre-eminently  in  the  dermis.  This  increased  vital  power,  which  is  de. 
manded  to  complement  the  loss  of  air-pressure,  upon  descending  to  the 
sea-level  remains  unaltered.  The  air-pressure  being  now  added  to  this 
peripheral  tone  of  the  body  causes  a  centripetal  determination  of  blood, 
which  is  felt  acutely  by  the  brain  and  all  the  nerve-centres.  The  syn- 
cope, increased  respiration,  and  palpitation  may  be  thus  accounted  for. 
The  reduction,  as  it  were,  of  the  size  of  the  body  in  the  vascular  system 
demands,  on  account  of  mechanical  congestion  of  all  the  viscera,  an  in- 
creased action  in  the  heart  and  lungs,  whereby  the  blood  may  be  rapidly 
aerated  and  rapidly  passed  off  by  the  secreting  and  excreting  surfaces. 
The  resort  to  purgatives  and  depleting  measures,  under  the  effects  of  a 
rapid  descent,  is  beneficial,  which  is  a  therapeutic  indication  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  my  theory,  and  which  I  never  have  seen  before  explained."1 


1  "  Hygiene  and  Medical  Reports  by  Medical  Officers  of  the  U.  S.  Navy."    Vol. 
iv.,  1879,  pp.  269-277. 


CHAPTER    X. 
ATMOSPHERIC    PRESSURE. 

The  influence  of  changes  in  the  weather  on  the  sensations  of  persona 
afflicted  with  some  diseases,  preceding  rainfall,  has  long  been  recognized, 
and  since  the  discovery  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  the 
barometer  with  which  that  pressure  is  measured,  the  knowledge  of  a 
close  connection  between  the  fall  of  the  barometer,  and  painful  sensations 
experienced  by  persons  afflicted  with  rheumatic  and  neuralgic  diseases, 
has  become  general.  But  the  true  relation  of  the  fall  of  the  barometer 
to  such  painful  sensations  was  first  clearly  explained  by  Dr.  Andrew  H. 
Smith,  of  New  York,  in  his  study  of  the  "Caisson  Disease,"  during 
the  early  progress  of  the  East  River  Bridge.1 

Under  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  fifteen  pounds  to  the 
square  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  all  the  functions  of  life  are 
naturally  exercised.  When  compressed  air  first  began  to  be  employed  in 
the  sinking  of  piers,  about  thirty-five  years  ago,  it  was  soon  observed 
that  when  workmen  were  exposed  to  these  pressures,  they  were  subject 
to  peculiar  physiological  changes.  The  blood  in  their  veins  became  of 
the  same  red  color  as  that  in  their  arteries,  the  respiration  was  quick- 
ened, the  action  of  the  skin  was  profuse ;  and  when  the  men  returned 
to  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  they  suffered  with  pain  in 
their  limbs,  giddiness,  and  other  symptoms  of  nervous  disturbance  :  in- 
somuch that  the  period  of  labor  had  to  be  very  much  shortened.  Tak- 
ing ten  hours  as  the  standard  time  for  a  day's  labor,  it  was  reduced  under 
two  atmospheres  to  half  time,  or  five  hours;  under  three  atmospheres,  to 
one-third  time,  or  three  hours  and  a  half  ;  and  under  four  atmospheres, 
to  one-fourth  time,  or  two  hours  and  a  half. 

In  the  East  River  Bridge  caisson,  at  the  beginning  of  the  work,  the 
pressure  of  the  air  necessary  to  keep  the  water  out — which  pressure  in- 
creased in  exact  proportion  to  the  depth — was  about  eighteen  pounds  to 
the  square  inch,  while  at  the  close  of  the  work  it  stood  at  thirty-six 
pounds.     As  the  depth  increased,  the  hours  of  labor  were  reduced,  until 

1  "The  Effects  of  High  Atmospheric  Pressure,  including  the  caisson  diseases.'' 
Prize  essay  of  the  Alumni  Association  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
New  York,  1873.  By  Andrew  H.  Smith,  M.D.,  Surgeon  to  the  New  York  Bridge 
Company,  Member  of  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  etc.,  etc. 


86  ATMOSPHERIC     PRESSURE. 

at  last  the  two  shifts  comprised  but  four  hours,  divided  by  four  hours 
interval.  It  was  not  until  the  pressure  had  reached  about  twenty-four 
pounds  that  any  serious  effect  upon  the  men  was  observed.  All  who 
were  suffering  from  heart  or  lung  disease,  and  those  enfeebled  by  intem- 
perance were  excluded,  and  rigid  health  rules  were  exacted  in  regard  to 
diet,  temperance,  sleep,  etc.,  when  off  work ;  and  allowing  no  workman 
to  enter  the  caisson  who  was  at  all  sick.  Their  ages  ranged  from  eighteen 
to  fifty.  The  habits  of  many  of  tbem  were  unfavorable  to  health,  but 
everything  practicable  was  done  to  restrain  them  from  excesses. 

The  physical  conditions  to  which  the  men  were  subjected  in  their 
work  were  very  peculiar.  In  the  first  place,  in  passing  through  the  lock 
in  going  down,  there  was  a  very  sudden  rise  of  temperature  from  the 
condensation  of  the  air.  Tins  rise  amounted  to  upwards  of  30°  F.  in 
many  cases,  and  not  infrequently,  when  the  outside  temperature  was  50: 
or  60°.  This  change  of  temperature  was  coincident  with  an  increase  of 
atmospheric  pressure  of  from  eighteen  to  thirty-six  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.  At  the  same  time,  the  men  passed  from  an  atmosphere  of  unusual 
dryness  to  one  saturated  or  super-saturated  with  moisture.  The  effect  of 
this,  Dr.  Smith  observes,  was  : — 

"  The  clothing  quickly  became  saturated,  but  a  little  examination 
served  to  show  that  in  the  New  York  caisson,  at  least,  there  was  really 
no  increase  of  the  secretion  from  the  skin,  but  that,  instead  of  evapora- 
tion, the  moisture  accumulated  upon  the  surface,  and  thus  simulated 
excessive  sweating.  This  was  owing  to  the  moist  condition  of  the  at- 
mosphere, which  rendered  the  drying  of  the  surface  by  evaporation  im- 
j>ossible.  The  atmosphere  possessed  to  an  extreme  degree  the  quality  of 
"  mugginess,"  and  the  apparently  profuse  perspiration  was  merely  an 
exaggeration  of  what  Ave  suffer  from  in  very  damp  weather,  even  though 
the  temperature  be  not  extreme. 

"  So  far  from  the  perspiratory  glands  being  stimulated  by  the  density 
of  the  atmosphere,  it  is  probable  that  the  anaemia  of  the  skin,  resulting 
from  the  pressure  upon  the  surface,  would  tend  to  lessen  the  secretion 
by  diminishing  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  glands  ;  and  that  there  was 
no  undue  amount  of  fluid  carried  off  through  the  skin  was  shown  by 
the  absence  of  thirst.  Special  importance  is  attached  to  this  observa- 
tion, of  the  apparent  increase  of  perspiration  only,  as  bearing  upon  the 
theory  of  excessive  waste  of  tissue,  in  which  the  perspiration  is  supposed 
to  aid." 

With  respect  to  the  effect  of  compressed  air  on  the  digestive 
organs,  for  a  time  at  least,  Dr.  Smith's  observations  are  in  accord  with 
others — that  the  appetite  is  increased  to  a  marked  extent.  It  was  fre- 
quently remarked  by  the  men  working  in  the  Bridge  caisson,  that  their 
work  made  them  unusually  hungry,  that  they  "  could  not  get  enough 
to  eat,  etc." 

The  " caisson  disease  "  Dr.  Smith  defines  to  be    "a  disease  depend- 


\  [VOBPB  EBIl      PEES61  BE. 

ing  upon  increased  atmospheric  pressure,  but  always  developed  after  the 
pressure  is  removed.  .  .  .  The  one  essentia]  cause,  without  which  the 
disease  can  aevei  be  developed,  is  the  transition  to  the  normal  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  after  a  prolonged  sojourn  in  a  highly  condensed  atmo- 
sphere. Eence  we  have  to  consider  two  elements,  pressure  and  time. 
A-  the  momentum  of  a  moving  body  is  found  by  multiplying  the  weigh! 
by  the  velocity,  bo  the  danger  in  these  cases  is  as  the  degree  of  pressure 
to  which  the  person  has  been  exposed,  multiplied  by  the  duration  of  the 
exposure. 

•■  Bui  inasmuch  as  a  prolonged  sojourn  in  the  caisson  does  not  in  every 
case  produce  the  disease  (many  of  the  men  employed  escaping  it  en- 
tirely), it  follows  that  there  must  be  concurrent  causes  which  determine 
its  development.  This  is  what  Ave  observed  in  many  other  diseases  of 
specific  origin.  Thus  the  essential  cause  of  intermittent  fever  is  expo- 
sure to  a  peculiar  malaria,  yet  only  a  portion  of  those  so  exposed  are 
affected  by  the  disease. 

"  The  first  of  the  concurrent  causes  of  the  caisson  disease  is  a  special 
predisposition.  This  is  occasionally  strongly  marked,  some  persons  being 
affected  by  a  short  exposure  to  a  low  pressure  from  which  there  would 
generally  be  experienced  no  inconvenience  whatever. 

"  The  study  of  these  cases  has  led  me  to  the  suspicion  that  they  afford 
a  key  to  the  singular,  though  very  common,  predisposition  to  pains  in 
the  limbs  on  the  approach  of  a  storm.  These  pains  are  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  of  a  rheumatic  character,  and  to  depend  upon  the  damp- 
ness of  the  atmosphere.  But  inasmuch  as  the  disease  we  are  consider- 
ing affords  examples  of  pains  precisely  the  same  in  character,  but 
immensely  intensified  in  degree,  resulting  from  a  diminution  of  an  at- 
mospheric pressure  to  which  the  system  had  adapted  itself,  and  irrespec- 
tive of  any  question  of  humidity,  analogy  suggests  that  the  so-called 
rheumatic  cases  are  simply  exaggerations  of  a  predisposition,  identical  in 
kind  with  the  one  under  discussion,  and  are  produced  by  the  low  baro- 
metric condition  of  the  atmosphere  which  precedes  a  storm,  and  not  by 
the  influence  of  moisture.  It  is  true  that  the  change  in  the  pressure  is 
insignificant  when  compared  with  that  which  produces  the  caisson  dis- 
ease, but  it  is  supplemented  by  the  immensely  greater  duration  of  the 
higher  pressure  to  which  the  subject  has  been  previously  exposed.  Per- 
sons suffering  in  the  manner  referred  to,  regard  themselves  as  walking 
hygrometers,  and  are  accustomed  to  say,  'I  feel  the  dampness  in  my 
bones.'  I  would  suggest  that  they  are  rather  barometers,  perhaps  quite 
as  sensitive  as  the  instrument  of  Torricelli." 

Upon  this  reasoning  and  other  inferences  which  he  has  drawn  from 
his  researches,  Dr.  Smith  explains  why  some  cicatrices,  such  as  those 
following  gunshot  wounds,  are  especially  prone  to  neuralgic  pains  during 
change  of  weather.  He  also  explains  why,  on  bright  days,  when  the  air 
is  clear  and  the  barometer  is  high — that  is  to  say,  when  the  greater  at- 


88  ATMOSPHERIC    PRESSURE. 

mospheric  pressure  on  the  surface  drives  the  blood  into  the  interior  of 
the  body,  and  especially  into  the  organs  in  closed  cavities,  such  as  the 
brain,  the  mind  is  active  and  the  muscles  vigorous ;  while,  on  the  con- 
trary, on  damp,  foggy  days,  mental  effort  is  irksome,  the  limbs  drag, 
the  appetite  poor,  and  the  whole  tone  of  the  system  lowered. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Ward  Eichardson,  in  commenting  upon  Dr.  Smith's 
observations,  remarks  : 

"  The  changes  are  more  distinctive  still  in  those  who  are  prone  to 
disease,  and. in  whom  the  vessels  are  already  enfeebled  or  changed  in 
structure.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  effects  of  reduced  pressure 
tell  with  intense  force  on  large  populations  who  are  already  en- 
feebled. .  .  . 

"  Whether  the  variation  from  high  to  low  pressure  ever  acts  as  a  pri- 
mary cause  of  disease  it  is  impossible  to  define,  but  that  it  acts  as  an  ex- 
citing cause  of  the  most  serious  character,  on  persons  predisposed  to 
disease,  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever.  A  sudden  reduction  of  the 
atmospheric  pressure,  which  means  a  fall  in  the  barometer,  is  attended 
with  risk  of  pressure  of  blood,  leading  to  pressure  on  nervous  fibre  and 
production  of  pain;  to  internal  congestion,  to  fever,  to  apoplexy  ;  while 
an  increased  pressure,  which  means  a  rise  in  the  barometer,  is  attended 
with  greater  risk  of  injury  from  physical  or  mental  shock. 

"  The  effect  of  the  variation  extends  in  yet  another  direction/*  as 
pointed  out  by  the  same  author  in  an  essay  on  "  Meteorology  in  Eela- 
tion  to  Surgical  Practice/'  "that  the  atmospherical  pressure  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  results  of  surgical  procedures,  and  that  with  a 
falling  barometer  the  chances  of  success  are  reduced."  ' 

1  "  The  Field  of  Disease,  a  book  of  Preventive  Medicine."  By  Benjamin  Ward 
Richardson,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S..  etc.,  p.  552. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
SEA-COAST    PLACES    AND    OCEAN    AIR. 

JNSULAR  AN'])  SEA-COAST  PLACES — WARM  MOIST  CLIMATES — SEA- AIR 
PROPER — RATIO  OF  DEATHS  FROM  CONSUMPTION  TO  OTHER  DIS- 
EASES AMONG  SEAMEN — SPECIAL  BENEFIT  OF  AX  OCEAN  ATMO- 
SPHERE TO  CONSUMPTIVES — OZONE  IN  OCEAN  AIR — PURITY  OF 
OCEAN   AIR    AND    ITS    GENERAL    SALUBRITY. 

The  air  of  insular  and  sea-coast  places  is  essentially  damp,  and  if  such 
places  are  beset  with  accumulated  debris  and  a  filthy  soil,  they  are  un- 
healthy in  the  extreme.  But  on  the  contrary,  if  they  are  free  from 
local  contaminating  influences  and  subject  to  excessive  rainfall,  and  so 
situated  as  not  to  be  exposed  to  winds  that  trend  with  the  coast,  though 
the  atmosphere  be  never  so  damp,  such  places  are  not  commonly  in- 
salubrious. Indeed  the  heavy  rains  of  some  sea-coast  places  are  greatly 
contributive  to  the  purity  of  both  the  atmosphere  and  soil;  and  in  cold 
latitudes  especially,  the  moderating  influence  of  the  sea  on  the  temperature 
renders  them  not  only  more  endurable,  but,  as  measured  by  results,  more 
salutary  for  invalids  affected  with  pulmonary  diseases  than  the  dryer, 
colder,  and  more  variable  temperature  of  interior  places  of  the  same 
latitude. 

The  northeast  winds  of  the  Atlantic  States  are  insalubrious,  because 
they  sweep  down  the  fogs  and  mists  of  a  northern  sea-shore.  But,  on  the 
contrary,  the  southeast  and  southerly  winds  are  clean  and  healthy,  be- 
cause they  are  from  the  warmer  latitudes  and  from  the  pure  surface  of 
the  ocean. 

Worm  insular  and  sea-coast  places,  with  a  clean  soil  and  devoid  of  or- 
ganic matter  in  process  of  putrefaction,  are  commonly  free  from  pul- 
monary diseases,  and  generally  healthy.  Countries  thus  favorably 
situated  are  proverbially  associated  with  the  personal  beauty  of  their 
inhabitants,  and  are  in  all  ages  more  or  less  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of 
their  women.  But  this  characteristic  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  warm 
climates  of  temperate  latitudes. 

In  tropical  climates,  development  is  more  rapid,  the  period  of  puberty 
earlier,  and  the  beauty  of  childhood  marked:  but  the  beauty  of  the  child 
in  such  climates  is  not  unfrequently  merged  into  a  womanly  beauty  of 
very  short  duration.     And  in  localities  where  the  atmosphere  is  moist 


90  SEA-COAST    PLACES    AXD    OCEAN"    AIK. 

and  very  hot,  the  inhabitants  are  usually  of  feehle  jmysique,  and  particu- 
larly prone  to  liver  disease.  On  strangers  the  effect  of  a  moist  hot  climate 
is  one  of  intolerable  lassitude  and  depression. 

Sea-air  is  remarkable  for  its  salubrity,  notwithstanding  its  humidity, 
and  some  of  the  insular  and  Gulf-coast  places  of  the  United  States,  with 
prevailing  southeastern  and  southerly  winds,  approximate  the  condi- 
tions of  an  ocean  atmosphere.  But  sea-air  proper,  that  is  to  say,  the 
ocean  atmosphere,  is  generally  less  damp  than  the  air  of  sea-coast  places, 
however  favorably  they  may  be  situated.     For  example: 

'•'The  mean  relative  humidity  of  the  air  at  noon,  as  observed  during 
a  voyage  from  Melbourne  to  London,  via  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  was 
found  to  be  77  (100  representing  complete  saturation),  while  in  a  dry 
locality  in  the  neighborhood  of  London  the  mean  for  the  year,  as 
recorded  in  'The  Weather  of  1880/  by  Mr.  Mawley,  was  83.  But  this, 
Dr.  Wilson  remarks,  '  represents  the  mean  of  three  observations  taken 
respectively  at  9  a.m.,  3  p.m.,  and  9  p.m.  A  fairer  comparison  would 
therefore  be  with  the  mean  of  the  three-o'clock  observation,  which  for 
the  year  gave  71.5/  "* 

But  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  general  truth  that  the  ocean 
atmosphere  is  considerably  more  moist  than  the  air  of  corresponding 
latitudes  on  the  land. 

Observations  of  our  own,  covering  a  period  of  six  months,  from  June 
to  November,  inclusive,  1852,  during  a  cruise  on  the  West  Coast  of 
Africa,  extending  from  Porto  Praya,  Cape  du  Verdes  Island,  to  Mon- 
rovia, along  the  coast  south  to  St.  Paul  de  Loando,  seaward  to  St.  Helena 
and  back  to  the  Cape  du  Verdes,  give  a  difference,  between  the  dry-  and 
wet-bulb  thermometers,  recorded  at  8  a.m.,  12  m.,  4  and  8  p.m.  daily  for 
the  period: 

Maximum  6.20" .        Minimum  0°.        Mean  3.38". 

The  maximum  was  at  the  Cape  du  Verdes,  and  saturation,  during 
rains  while  on  the  coast.  But  singularly,  the  largest  average  number  of 
persons  on  the  sick-list  was  during  the  time  of  the  least  atmospheric 
moisture  while  at  Porto  Praya. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  in  this  connection,  and  germane  to  the 
effects  of  atmospheric  moisture  in  an  unhealthy  climate,  that  cruising 
was  uniformly  accompanied  by  a  reduced  sick-list,  and  that  the  healthi- 
est ship  in  the  squadron  was  the  one  which  was  at  sea  for  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  her  time — the  "  Dale." 

Out  of  a  total  force  of  750  in  the  squadron,  there  were  1,661  cases  of 
disease  treated  in  two  years  ;  9  or  .54  per  cent  were  for  phthisis  pul- 
monalis.     The  number  of  deaths  was  twelve — none  from  phthisis. 


s  •'  The  Ocean  as  a  Health  Resort,"  etc.,  by  William  S.   Wilson,    L.R.C.P. 
Lond.,  M.R.C.S.E.,  p.  9. 


B]   \  l  0  wi     PL  \<  E8    AND    OOE  \\     Ml: 


91 


Medical   direotor  Thomas  J.  Turner,  U.  8.  Navy,  baa   kindly  fnr- 
nished  the  author  with  the  following: 

Abstract  of  Vital  Statistics,  showing  I  h>-  Ratio  of  Death  from  Phthisis 
Pulmonalis  to  Deaths  from  all  Causes  in  the  United  States  Navy 

for  ten  years. 


V? 

, —   - 

•6 

m 

ffl 

- 

IS,. 

a 

0) 

0 

u 
O 

V 
cS 
9 

on 
3 

a 

£ 

a 

9 

G 

0 

o 

to 

3 
a 

|| 

«PL| 

p 

1 
0 

- 

1873 

12,723 

8,837 

55 

55 

4 

7.27 

1874 

13,860 

9,995 

64 

62 

7 

11.03 

1875 

10,141 

7,832 

49 

76 

6 

12.27 

1876 

11.138 

7,797 

41 

38 

3 

7.31 

1877 

7,461 

6,748 

1251 

44 

1878 

7,806 

6,873 

53 

53 

"&' 

3.77 

1879 

10,388 

10,284 

36 

55 

2 

5.55 

1880 

10,235 

9,752 

28 

49 

1 

3.57 

1881 

11,118 

9.483 

28 

50 

1 

3.57 

1  ss-i 

10,631 

8,911 

44 

59 

1 

2.27 

1883 

9,874 

8,722 

45 

41 

1 

O  OO 

Average  for  ten  years,         5.87 


It  may  perhaps  be  objected  by  those  who  are  disposed  to  regard  a 
moist  atmosphere  as  predisposing  to  consumption  under  all  circumstan- 
ces that  such  results  as  the  foregoing  are  any  evidence  whatever  to  the 
contrary — that  the  navy  represents  picked  men  who  are  ascertained  to 
be  free  from  predisposing  causes.  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that, 
according  to  the  most  reliable  statistics,  only  about  one-fourth  of  all 
cases  of  phthisis  are  found  to  be  hereditary — three-fourths  of  the  cases 
are  acquired  by  the  manner  of  life;  and  the  life  of  the  seaman,  especially 
that  portion  of  it  which  he  spends  on  shore,  free  from  the  constraints  of 
ship  discipline  and  the  involuntary  benefit  of  a  sea  atmosphere,  is  not 
such  as  to  promote  his  exemption.  And,  unfortunately,  many  physi- 
cians, as  well  as  other  people,  seem  to  have  jumped  to  the  conclusion 
that  because  it  has  been  shown  that  a  filthy,  cold,  6-o<7-moisture  predis- 
poses to  consumption,  safety  is  to  be  found  only  in  an  excessively,  or  at 
least  relatively  dry  atmosphere,  beset  by  no  matter  what  complications. 
But  so  far  as  statistics  are  obtainable,  evidence  is  wanting  to  substanti- 
ate such  a  conclusion. 

According  to  AVilson,  in  England,2  "  the  registration  returns  of  deaths 
amongst  sailors   of  the  mercantile  marine  show  that  the  proportion  of 


1  100  drowned  by  loss  of  the  "Huron." 

2  Op.  cit. 


92  SEA-COAST    PLACES    AND    OCEAN   AIR. 

deaths  from  consumption,  as  compared  with  those  from  other  causes,  is 
ten  times  less  than  it  is  amongst  the  English  land  population.  But  if 
we  take  only  the  deaths  that  occur  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  forty- 
five  (the  usual  period  during  which  sailors  remain  at  sea),  we  shall  find 
the  result  still  more  favorable — the  proportion  of  deaths  from  consump- 
tion as  against  those  from  all  other  causes  being  sixteen  times  less  at  sea 
than  on  land. 

' '  Xext  as  to  the  remedial  effects  of  the  ocean  climate  in  the  treatment 
of  consumption,  Dr.  Theodore  Williams  has  published  statistics  of 
eighteen  cases  in  which  the  sea  treatment  received  a  thorough  trial.  Of 
these  eighteen  cases,  sixteen  improved,  one  remained  stationary,  and  only 
one  became  worse.  As  some  explanation  of  the  extremely  favorable  re- 
sults shown  in  this  series  of  cases,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  pa- 
tients were  carefully  selected  for  treatment  by  physicians  of  great  expe- 
rience, and  that  several  of  them  made  more  than  one  voyage. 

"  "With  regard  to  thirty-eight  cases  of  consumption  which  have  come- 
under  my  own  observation,  the  results  were  as  follows:  28  improved,  i 
remained  stationary,  3  became  worse,  and  1  died.  These  cases  were  by 
no  means  selected.  In  some  of  them  the  disease  was  very  far  advanced 
— this  was  particularly  the  case  with  the  three  cases  which  became  worse 
during  the  voyage.  As  regards  the  case  that  ended  fatally,  the  patient, 
had  been  for  some  time  in  the  colonies,  and  was  being  sent  home  without 
any  reasonable  hope  of  his  living  to  reach  his  destination.  But  even 
including  these  four  cases  which  ought  not  to  have  been  sent  to  sea  at 
all,  the  results  are  most  encouraging  and  will  compare  favorably  with 
any  series  of  cases  treated  in  the  most  favored  health  resorts  on 
shore.  .  .  . 

"  Scrofulous  affections  of  the  joints  and  glands,  and  all  kindred  affec- 
tions, may,  in  certain  stages,  be  most  successfully  treated  by  means  of  a 
sea  voyage.  It  would,  of  course,  be  inadvisable  to  send  a  patient  to  sea 
while  suffering  from  the  more  acute  forms  of  joint  disease,  as  the  con- 
stant surgical  attention  and  the  many  appliances  and  comforts  required 
by  the  sufferer  could  scarcely  be  obtained  on  board  ship.  But  when  the 
more  active  symptoms  have  subsided,  and,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  the 
disease  assumes  a  chronic  form,  the  slow  and  tedious  convalescence  may. 
in  suitable  cases,  be  wonderfully  hastened  by  a  sea  voyage  of  some  dura- 
tion." 

Dr.  Benjamin  Ward  Richardson  remarks  that:  "  The  influence  of  a 
seafaring  life  as  a  preventative  of  phthisis  has  been  matter  of  important 
observation.  In  1856,  Bowdin  showed  that  while  the  deaths  from  con- 
sumption in  the  British  army  were,  in  the  Line,  8.9  in  1,000  men;  in  the 
Guards,  12.5  in  1,000  men;  in  the  British  Navy,  from  1830  to  1856  in- 
clusive, the  deaths  from  phthisis  were  1.76  in  1,000  men.1 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  558. 


9E  \-<  "  \-\    PL  L0K8    AN l.AX    air.  '.•:; 

Various  nervous  affections,  th  of  over-work  and  debilil 

mind  or  body,  arc  also  among  the  conditions  for  which  a  sea  voyage,  at 
least,  if  not  a  prolonged  exposure  to  an  ocean  atmosphere,  affords 
superior  benefit. 

Unfortunately,  in  the  United  States,  except  those  above  given  from 

naval  sources,  there  arc  no  records  of  any  value  on   the  vital  statistics 

mariners. 

"  The  term  seaman,  wherever  employed  in  legislation  relating  to  the 
Marine  Hospital  Service,  shall  be  held  to  include  any  persons  employed 
on  board,  in  the  care,  preservation,  or  navigation  of  any  vessel,  or  in  the 
Bervice,  on  board,  of  those  engaged  in  such  care,  preservation,  or  naviga- 
tion." * 

The  Marine  Hospital  Service  reports  comprehend  all  eases  of  dis- 
ease treated — -including  women  and  children  and  servants,  of  and  from 
among  all  persons  employed  as  river  boatmen,  ferrymen,  canal  boatmen, 
etc.,  and  their  families,  as  well  as  seamen;  of  persons,  in  short,  sub- 
jected to  conditions  in  conflict  with  health  probably  unequalled  by  any 
other  avocation.  Notwithstanding,  so  far  as  can  be  gleaned  from  the 
reports  of  the  Marine  Hospital  Service  for  the  last  ten  years,  the  ratio  of 
deaths  from  consumption  to  other  diseases  among  these  people  is  about 
15  per  cent — considerably  less  than  that  given  by  the  census  reports  of 
the  Xew  England  States  and  of  some  others. 

Besides  an  excess  of  moisture,  compared  with  the  mean  of  0.84  vol- 
umes, the  ocean  atmosphere  contains  at  all  times  more  or  less  of  infinitesi- 
mally  divided  particles  of  sea  salt.  Yet,  considering  the  purity  of  the 
vapor  and  the  perfect  solubility  of  the  salt,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  of 
any  possible  state  of  the  human  system  under  which  the  inhalation  of 
such  air  would  be  detrimental.  But,  on  the  contrary,  as  already  shown, 
in  some  of  its  states,  the  constant  inhalation  of  these  particles,  contain- 
ing, as  they  do,  the  important  constituents  of  sea-water,  is  well  adapted 
to  produce  very  salutary,  and  in  most  cases  of  chronic  pulmonary  dis- 
ease, decidedly  beneficial  effects. 

Cold  and  heat  are  much  less  intense  and  oppressive  in  the  same  lati- 
tudes at  sea  than  on  land,  and  there  is  much  greater  equality  of  temper- 
ature for  night  and  day.  In  the  open  sea  the  temperature  of  the  air  has 
never  exceeded  86  \ 

Moreover,  the  higher  electrical  state  of,  and  the  more  constant 
presence  of  ozone  in,  the  atmosjDhere,  the  complete  absence  of  e  - 
pended  matters,  barring  certain  exceptional  regions,  and  the  more 
common  prevalence  of  the  winds  than  on  land  in  the  same  latitudes,  all 
contribute  to  the  general  salubrity. 

The  winds  are  a  fertile  source  of  health,  because  they  serve  to  equal- 
ize temperature  and  to  scatter  pernicious  effluvia  and  condensed  vapors, 

1  Revised  Statutes,  1875,  Chap.  15S,  Sec.  3. 


94  SEA-COAST    PLACES    AXD    OCEAN    AIR. 

though  they  may  in  some  cases  be  unfavorable,  according  to  the  region 
over  "which  they  pass,  from  which  they  set  out,  or  the  suspended  matters 
which  they  contain.  The  writer  has  himself  seen  the  whole  atmosphere 
tinged  of  pinkish  color  by  the  dust-laden  winds  over  two  hundred  miles 
from  the  land  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The  dust  in  the  air  of  the 
high  altitudes  of  some  of  our  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  States  (more 
particularly  noticed  further  on)  is  a  scarcely  less  prominent  example. 
The  simoon  of  Africa  and  the  sirocco  of  Italy  also  owe  their  characters 
to  the  condition  of  the  localities  over  which  they  pass. 

But,  notwithstanding  these  exceptional  cases  where  the  winds  are 
the  media  of  pernicious  influences,  and  to  a  certain  extent  favorable  to 
the  development  of  disease  in  places  distant  it  may  be  from  their  prime 
source,  their  general  benefit  is  universal.  For  miasm  once  effectually 
"  scattered  to  the  winds  "  is  in  a  gulf  of  destruction  only  as  complete  as 
that  which  attends  human  beings  in  windless  abodes. 

The  influence  of  the  ocean  air-currents  is  most  powerfully  felt  far  out 
at  sea  in  the  trade-wind  regions.  Differing  as  these  winds  do  in  many 
respects  from  anything  that  is  experienced  on  the  land,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  they  should,  as  they  do,  impress  upon  many  persons  an  ex- 
hilarating effect  peculiar  to  themselves.  To  many  nervous  invalids, 
especially  the  "champagne  atmosphere  of  the  trades,"  as  it  is  not  inap- 
propriately called,  is  a  tonic  and  stimulant  of  the  most  powerful  kind, 
scarcely  attainable  by  any  other  means. 

In  short,  sea-air  proper  possesses  no  deleterious  qualities  whatever. 
The  bracing  and  hardening  effects  of  it  are  proverbial  of  seamen  of  good 
habits  the  world  over. 

The  ill  effects  sometimes  attributed  to  sea-air  are  either  owing  to  bad 
habits  or  to  the  want  of  ship-ventilation  and  due  regard  to  cleanliness. 
For  on  board  ship,  as  everywhere  else,  no  truer  maxim  can  be  acted  upon 
than  that  the  want  of  purity  is  the  want  of  health. 

Light  is  a  collateral  benefit  of  sea-air;  and  doubtless  not  a  little  of 
the  rigidity  of  tissue  and  hardiness  which  characterizes  the  sailor  is  owing 
to  the  influence  of  light.  Free  access  of  light  favors  nutrition  and  regu- 
larity of  development,  and  contributes  to  beautify  the  countenance;, 
while  deficiency  of  light  is  usually  characterized  by  ugliness,  rickets,  and 
deformity,  and  is  a  fruitful  source  of  scrofula  and  consumption  in  any 
climate. 

Light  is  among  the  most  important,  and  yet  one  of  the  most  com- 
monly neglected  conditions  of  a  healthy  life.  This  neglect  is  doubtless 
due  to  the  intimate  relations  of  light  with  pure  air.  To  fully  appreciate 
this  relation,  it  is  only  necessary  for  us  to  remember  that  thickly  shaded 
and  dark  places,  and  dwellings  so  situated  as  not  to  admit  the  sunlight, 
are  commonly  unhealthy. 

Plants  deprived  of  light  become  white,  and  at  the  same  time  acquire 
an  excess  of  water  in  their  tissues,  which  renders  them  tender  and  brit- 


-i   L-G0A81    PL  \'  i.s    ami   00EA2)    All:. 

tie.  This  is  specially  evidenl  in  oelery,  with  which  all  are  familiar.  It 
is  equally  so  with  other  vegetables,  and  the  grass  and  weeds  on  the  shady 

side  of  fences  and  under  Ledges  of  rocks,  if  the  sunlight  is  excluded, 
arc  always  imperfectly  developed,  weak,  and  sickly,  and  rarely  bear 
flowers  or  fruit. 

Edwards  made  a  series  of  experiments  with  reference  to  the  effect  of 
light  on  animal  life.  Ee  found  that  by  excluding  the  light  from  tad- 
poles, development  was  arrested — they  ceased  to  grow.  Professor  Wil- 
liam A.  Hammond,  of  New  York,  has  repeated  the  experiments  of  Ed- 
wards, with  the  same  results.  Dr.  Hammond  has  also  experimented 
with  other  animals. 

Two  kittens,  twenty  days  old,  one  weighed  eighteen  ounces,  and  the 
other  eighteen  ounces  and  a  half.  The  first  one  was  placed  in  a  box  to 
which  the  light  of  the  sun  had  free  access;  the  second  in  a  similar  box 
from  which  the  light  was  excluded.  Both  were  fed  alike,  and  given  the 
same  care  in  all  other  respects,  except  light.  At  the  end  of  the  first  five 
days,  number  one  had  attained  the  weight  of  twenty-two  and  a  half  ounces, 
while  number  two  weighed  but  twenty  and  three-quarter  ounces.  At  the 
end  of  a  second  period  of  five  days,  number  one  weighed  twenty-four 
ounces,  while  number  two  scarcely  weighed  twenty-two  ounces.  The 
two  were  now  placed  together  in  the  box  which  was  exposed  to  the  light, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  third  period  of  five  days  each  weighed  within  a 
fraction  of  twenty-five  ounces.  Humbolt  ascribes  the  infrequency  of 
deformities  among  the  native  Mexicans,  Peruvians,  and  other  native 
Americans  to  the  fact  that  they  are  from  childhood  subjected  to  the 
free  influence  of  solar  light  upon  the  whole  surface  of  the  body. 

All  good  medical  observers  have  remarked  the  pale  and  sickly 
bodies,  and  the  frequency  of  deformities  among  people  who  live  in 
houses  insufficiently  lighted,  and  particularly  among  persons  who  work 
in  mines,  and  persons  who  live  in  dark  courts  and  basements  into  which 
the  sun  rarely  or  never  shines.  Such  persons  are  extremely  subjected 
to  palpitation  of  the  heart,  dropsy,  and  hemorrhages,  and  when  taken 
sick  with  any  disease  they  rarely  recover. 

Dr.  Hammond  also  particulary  remarks  upon  the  situation  of  school- 
houses,  often  such  as  to  wholly  exclude  the  sunlight  from  half  of  the 
rooms.  And  in  these,  excessively  crowded  as  they  often  are,  the  pupils 
are  like  the  sickly  plants — etiolated,  weakly,  and  frequently  deformed. 
No  room  should  be  used  for  a  school  which  does  not  admit  of  sunlight 
at  least  two  hours  every  day  that  it  shines.1 

1  "  Sanitary  Influence  of  Light."  The  Sanitarian,  Vol.  I.,  p.  84. 


OHAPTEE    XII. 

FORESTS. 

FUNCTIONS  OF  PLANTS  IN  DRYING  THE  SOIL — FOREST  AIR  ESSENTIALLY 
MOIST — SPECIAL  QUALITIES  OF  PINE  FORESTS — CONSERVATIVE  IN- 
FLUENCE OF  FORESTS  IN  COLD  CLIMATES — EFFECTS  OF  FORESTS  ON 
TEMPERATURE — RELATIONS  OF  ELECTRICITY  AND  OZONE  TO  FORESTS 
— THE  EUCALYPTUS,    ITS    HISTORY,    CULTIVATION,    AND    PROPERTIES. 

The  influence  of  forests  in  producing  and  modifying  the  effects  of  a 
humid  state  of  the  atmosphere  is,  in  some  respects,  comparable  with  the 
sea-coast  and  the  ocean.  The  great  "  Dismal  "  Swamps  of  Virginia  and 
the  Carolinas,  for  example,  are  known  to  be  healthy  in  the  interior, 
even  for  the  white  man,  while  on  their  borders,  or  in  portions  where  the 
trees  are  felled,  they  are  like  the  sea-coast — commonly  insalubrious. 

The  same  conditions  obtain  in  the  Mexican  Gulf  region  and  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa.  On  the  borders  of  the  great  forests,  or  wherever 
they  are  interspersed  with  sandy  plains  or  sparse  of  trees  from  other 
causes,  fevers  prevail;  while  in  the  denser  regions,  and  especially  where 
the  forest  consists  of  spike-leaved  trees,  fevers  are  ordinarily  absent.  In- 
deed, the  common  belief  that  intervening  trees  even  often  afford  protec- 
tion against  malarious  marshes  is  founded  on  observations  sufficiently  well 
verified  to  be  accepted  as  a  general  truth.  And,  as  truly  remarked  by 
Becquerel,  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  "  Humid  air  charged  with  mias- 
mata, is  deprived  of  them  in  passing  through  a  forest.-"1  Yet  forests  are 
in  themselves  store-houses  of  moisture  everywhere. 

That  forests  are  commonly  salubrious  is  probably  due  to  the  joint 
functions  of  the  trees  in  draining  the  soil,  distilling  the  moisture, 
emission  of  aromatic  vapors,  particularly  of  the  pitch-pine  and  eucalyp- 
tus, and  absorbing  the  emanations  of  vegetable  putrefaction.  And  here 
it  may  be  remarked  that  while  moisture  is  an  indispensable  condition  of 
forests,  they  do  not  have,  as  is  popularly  supposed,  much,  if  indeed 
any,  influence  over  the  rainfall.  Those  who  hold  that  they  do,  mistake 
effect  for  cause — the  rain  produces  the  forest,  and  not  the  forest  the  rain. 

Soil  drainage  is  naturally  accomplished  in  forests  by  the  processes  of 

1  Becquerel:  "  Des  Climats  et  de  l'lnfluence  qu  exercent  les  sols  boises  et  non 
•boises." 


FORESTS. 


97 


growth  and  decay  of  tlio  roots  of  the  saplings  and  trees,  [tis  particu- 
larly manifest  in  pine  forests,  proverbial  for  their  salubrity.  No  boy 
who  has  ever  engaged  in  t  be  sports  of  bare-hunting  in  a  pine  I  ticket 
farmer  who  has  oleared  pine  lands,  that  has  not  acquired  some  famil- 
iarity with  stump-holes — the  holes  lefl  by  the  decayed  tap-roots  of  the 
young  trees.  All  forests  spring  up  at  flrai  in  thickets,  and  as  the  young 
i ires  enlarge  ami  become  crowded  for  want  of  room  to  spread  their 
branches,  the  "survival  of  the  fittest"  soon  becomes  a  condition  of 
their  existence.  The  tender  saplings,  as  they  die  out  and  give  room, 
also  bequeath  benefits  to  their  survivors  by  establishing  a  system  of 
drains  promotive  of  their  healthy  development.  This  they  do  by  the- 
mode  of  growth  and  decay  of  the  roots.  The  growth  of  the  pine  espe- 
cially affords  an  admirable  illustration. 


=31    m 


NATURAL   DRAINAGE   OF  A  PINE  SAPLING. 


The  tap-root,  penetrating  from  a  few  inches  to  a  few  feet  in  depth, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  sapling  or  tree  at  the  time  of  its  death,  with 
its  numerous  radical  branches,  as  they  decay,  establish  a  natural  system 
of  soil  drainage,  which  may  be  studied  with  profit  by  engineers  and  agri- 
culturists. This  drainage  system  of  pine  thickets  begins  when  the  trees 
are  quite  small. 

All  observers  know  that  pine  thickets  are  of  exceedingly  thrifty 
growth.  During  the  first  year,  from  the  time  the  seeds  take  root, 
the  trees  grow  to  the  height  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  inches;  the 
second  year,  three  times  as  much — three  to  four  feet;  and  by  the 
end  of  the  third  year  the  young  trees  are  from  eight  to  ten  feet  high, 
and  the  thicket  almost  impenetrable,  and  at  about  this  time  the  weak- 
lings begin  to  perish.  The  sappy  roots  decay  with  wonderful  rapidity, 
leaving  in  their  places  an  inimitable  network  of  soil-drains.  The  system 
is  by  no  means  confined  to  pine  forests,  though  it  is,  perhaps,  more  clearly 
manifest  in  them  than  in  others.  No  matter  what  the  kind  of  forest, 
nor  how  old  the  trees,  as  all  trees  grow  as  long  as  they  live,  and  as  young 
trees  are  constantly  springing  up  and  contending  for  the  mastery,  the 
weakliest  of  both  old  and  young  are  as  constantly  dying  out  to  give  place 


98  FORESTS. 

to  the  more  hardy,  and  thus  this  natural  system  of  drainage  continues  as 
long  as  the  forest  lasts.  Moreover,  this  process  of  soil-drainage  by  plants 
is  far  from  being  confined  to  forest  trees;  it  obtains  more  or  less  with  all 
plants.  There  is  probably  no  region  of  country  in  the  world  where  its 
benefits  are  more  striking  than  in  the  growth  of  the  willow  on  the  lower 
Mississippi. 

Immense  areas  of  overflown  areas  thereabouts,  from  time  to  time, 
are,  in  an  almost  incredibly  short  period  of  time,  covered  with  impene- 
trable willow  thickets,  in  active  process  of  transforming  swamps  into  dry 
and  salubrious  soil.  And  although  the  roots  of  the  willow  are  without 
central  taps,  what  they  lack  in  this  respect  is  fully  compensated  for  by 
the  great  extent  and  thick  interlacing  of  the  lateral  radicals,  their  won- 
derful power  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  soil,  and,  when  the  saplings 
thin  out  and  the  roots  decay,  the  otherwise  compact  soil,  by  the  river  de- 
posit, is  converted  into  a  loose  and  fertile  surface.  And  the  immensity 
of  the  leaf-surface  of  willow  thickets  distilling  the  water  absorbed  by 
the  roots  is  beyond  calculation. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  extent  of  foliage  expanse,  an  instance  is 
cited  in  Gray's  First  Lessons  in  Botany  and  Physiology  of  an  estimate 
made  a  few  years  ago  of  a  single  tree— the  "  Washington  Elm  "—at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  a  tree  of  no  extraordinary  size,  but  it  was 
computed  to  produce  a  crop  of  seven  millions  of  leaves,  exposing  a  sur- 
face of  two  hundred  thousand  square  feet,  or  about  five  acres  of  foliage. 
From  this  example  of  the  evaporating  and  radiating  surface  of  foliage, 
we  gain  some  appreciation  of  the  hygrometric  and  thermoscopic  effect  of 
forests.  In  the  tropics,  and  in  the  summer  season  of  temperate  climates, 
the  trees  impose  a  complete  canopy  between  the  ground  and  the  sky,  and 
the  branches  frequently  interlock,  covering  many  miles  of  surface.  To 
comprehend  the  immensity  of  forest  foliage  expanse,  thus  perpetually 
distilling  the  moisture  absorbed  by  the  roots  of  plants,  is  beyond  the 
power  of  the  human  mind. 

While,  therefore,  by  their  myriad  leaves,  the  trees  of  the  forest  in- 
tercept the  moisture  of  the  passing  clouds,  and  the  fallen  leaves  form  a 
spongy  surface-soil  which  absorbs  the  rains  that  fall  upon  it  (where 
there  is  no  declivity  for  them  to  run  off),  to  be  gradually  soaked  into  the 
earth,  but  nevertheless  constantly  forming  a  vast  reservoir  of  moisture,  it 
is  evident,  from  what  has  already  been  stated,  that  the  means  for  the 
purification  and  disposal  of  moisture  thus  accumulated  are  correspond- 
ingly great  and  perfectly  consistent  with  salutary  results. 

The  conservative  influence  of  the  forest  on  climate  is  most  obvious 
in  cold  weather,  when  the  moisture  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  snow, 
and  accumulates,  as  it  frequently  does,  to  a  great  depth.  Sheltered 
from  the  winds,  the  snow  itself  becomes  a  protecting  cover  to  the  ground 
which  seldom  freezes.  The  snow  is  not  impervious  to  the  sun's  rays, 
and  for  this  reason,  the  first   snow-fall,  that  which  is  in  immediate 


FORESTS.  !»!> 

contact  with  the  frozen  cmst  of  the  earth,  if  one  has  already  been  formal, 
is  soon  thawed,  and  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  subsequently  kept  be- 
low the  freezing  point  throughout  the  winter.  Hence  the  bottom  layer 
soon  begins  to  melt,  and  proceeds  more  or  less  rapidly,  according  to 
the  relative  temperature  of  the  air  and  the  earth's  surface.  The  result- 
ing water  is  gradually  absorbed  and  carried  off  by  infiltration  with  such 
Facility  that  both  the  snow  and  the  layer  of  leaves  lying  between  it  and 
the  ground  often  appear  to  be  quite  dry,  notwithstanding  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaves  and  the  accumulated  vegetable  mould  are  in  a  state 
of  continuous  moisture. 

Doubtless  a  small  portion  of  the  snow  returns  to  the  atmosphere  by 
the  process  of  evaporation,  and  some  runs  off  into  superficial  water- 
courses. But  owing  to  the  protection  afforded  by  the  shade  from  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  entanglement  of  the  icy  surface  pierced  by 
the  trees  and  undergrowth,  the  great  body  of  the  snow  deposited  in 
forest  regions  is  retained  until  it  there  melts.    * 

The  snow-water  slowly  imbibed  by  the  earth,  besides  promoting  the 
growth  of  the  overshadowing  trees,  gradually  sinks,  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  permeability  of  the  soil,  and  proceeds  to  seek  out  or  to 
form  unseen  conduits,  which  wind  their  way  along  into  channels  and 
springs,  or  oozing  out  at  the  hillsides,  there  form  rills  which,  anon, 
swell  into  streams  and  rivers,  and  descend  to  the  sea  whence  it  came. 
The  roots  of  the  forest  trees  in  all  climates  usually  imbed  themselves 
in  the  moist  soil  sufficiently  deep  to  be  in  a  temperature  of  about  the 
annual  mean.  In  the  most  important  regions  of  both  America  and  Eu- 
rope, and  especially  in  those  portions  which  have  suffered  most  from 
the  destruction  of  the  forests,  the  superficial  strata  of  the  earth  are 
colder  in  winter  and  warmer  in  summer  than  the  strata  a  few  inches 
lower.  This  shifting  temperature  of  different  strata  below  the  surface 
of  the  earth  approximates  to  the  atmospheric  mean  of  the  respective 
seasons.  The  trees  being  conductors  of  heat,  when  the  earth  is  colder 
than  the  air,  convey  the  heat  of  the  atmosphere  to  the  earth,  and  when 
the  temperature  of  the  earth  is  higher  than  that  of  the  air,  they  trans- 
mit the  heat  in  the  opposite  direction  from  the  earth.  It  follows,  then, 
as  conductors  of  heat,  the  forests  play  an  important  part  towards  the 
equalization  of  the  temperature  of  the  earth  and  the  atmosphere. 

In  temperate  latitudes  especially  the  effect  of  forests  on  temperature 
is  considerably  increased  by  the  nature  of  the  foliage.  A  large  propor- 
tion of  the  trees  are  of  deciduous  foliage,  and  their  radiating,  as  well  as 
their  shading  surface,  is  very  much  greater  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

The  temperature  of  the  forest  in  all  climates  is  higher  in  winter  and 
lower  in  summer  than  that  of  the  open  ground.  Every  one  who  has 
visited  the  forests  with  any  frequency  knows  that  he  need  go  but  a  short 
distance  within  its  borders  to  escape  the  influence  of  even  a  furious 
wind,  and  that  woodmen  engaged  in  felling  trees  in  the  winter  rarely 


100  FORESTS. 

find  inconvenience  from  cold  winds,  which  penetrate  but  a  short  dis- 
tance, even  when  the  trees  are  devoid  of  their  leaves.  As  the  woods 
shelter  those  within  from  the  winds,  they  in  like  manner  protect  the 
adjacent  open  country  from  the  blasts  which  would  otherwise  sweep 
over  them,  and  which,  by  their  cold  and  mechanical  force,  and  by  their 
desiccating  influence,  prove  very  injurious  to  agriculture.  Hence  the 
presence  of  a  forest,  in  its  effect  on  adjacent  regions,  is  often  equivalene 
to  a  difference  of  several  degrees  in  the  latitude. 

It  has  been  remarked  by  Dr.  F.  L.  Oswald  that  the  "  Prince  de  Ligne, 
countryman  and  contemporary  of  Maria  Theresa,  wrote  an  essay  '  On 
the  Location  of  the  Earthly  Paradise/  and  after  some  reflection  on  the 
hygrometric  influence  of  different  climates,  calls  attention  to  the  fact 
that  '  paradise  traditions,  in  locating  the  garden  of  Eden,  differ  only  in 
regard  to  longitude,  but  not  to  latitude.  The  latitude  keeps  always  near  the 
snow -boundary ,  a  line  just  south  of  the  regions  where  snow  may  fall,  but 
will  not  stay  on  the  ground.  It  passes  through  Thibet,  Cashmere, 
Northern  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor,  and  reaches  the  meridian  of  Europe 
near  the  centre  of  the  Mediterranean.'  The  nations  that  '  celebrated  the 
life  as  a  festival '  have  lived  along  this  line,  and  we  may  doubt  if  in  the 
most  favored  regions  of  the  New  World  human  industry,  with  all  the  aids 
of  modern  science,  will  ever  re-unite  the  opportunities  of  happiness 
which  Nature  once  lavished  on  lands  that  now  entail  only  misery  on 
their  cultivators.  All  over  Spain  and  Portugal,  Southern  Italy,  Greece, 
Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Persia  and  "Western  Afghanistan,  and  throughout 
Northern  Africa,  from  Morocco  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  the  aridity  of 
the  soil  makes  the  struggle  for  existence  so  hard  that,  to  the  vast  majority 
of  the  inhabitants,  life  from  a  blessing  has  been  converted  into  a 
curse.  .  .  .  And  all  this  change  is  due  to  the  insane  destruction  of  the 
forests."1 

The  effect  of  forests  on  the  electrical  state  of  the  atmosjfliere,  and  the 
generation  of  ozone,  is  also,  doubtless,  a  force  of  great  influence  adding 
to  the  general  salubrity,  and  under  some  circumstances  giving  them 
special  potency. 

While  electricity  results  from  any  kind  of  chemical  change  or  action, 
of  which  there  is  much  incessantly  going  on  in  the  natural  relations  of 
the  forest  to  the  atmosphere  and  soil,  the  condensation  of  vapor  into 
rain  is,  perhaps,  the  most  prolific  of  all  sources  of  electricity.  And  be- 
sides this,  which  is  apparent  to  all  observers,  when  we  consider  the  in- 
visible, but  none  the  less  active  processes  of  absorption  and  exhalation, 
the  amount  of  water  daily  absorbed  from  the  soil  by  every  thrifty  tree, 
and  how  small  a  proportion  of  this  fluid  consists  of  matter  which  enters 
into  new  combinations  and  becomes  a  part  of  its  solid  frame-work,  it  is 
evident  that  the  superfluous  water  is  somehow  returned  to  the  atmosphere 

1  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  xi.,  p.  385. 


FORESTS.  1 1 1 1 

almost  as  rapidly  as  it  is  absorbed.  Again  when  we  reflect  upon  the 
interposing  obstacles  to  the  dew.  mists,  fogs,  and  light  showers  and  the 
redispersing  of  the  water  from  these  sources  into  invisible  vapor  to  cool 
the  air;  and  the  influence  of  the  same  obstacles  in  heavy  rains,  serving 
to  break  the  big  drops  and  scatter  them  into  misty  fragments — the  mul- 
tiplication and  combination  of  these  influences  abundantly  account  for 
the  electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  forest. 

Moreover,  to  the  same  active  influences  and  electricity  is  due  the 
exalted  activity  of  oxygen — the  generation  of  ozone — always  active,  when 
present,  as  a  destroyer  of  organic  matter  in  process  of  decay,  and  in  this 
case  hastening  the  return  of  the  emanations  of  vegetable  decay  to  their 
original  elements — the  elements  of  a  pure  and  vivifying  atmosphere. 
Hence  the  specially  invigorating  effect  of  a  forest  atmosphere  in  some 
states  of  the  human  system,  and  its  general  salubrity  in  all. 

Sudden  accession  to  the  amount  of  vapor  in  the  atmosphere,  especially 
if  associated  with  a  fall  of  temperature,  are  well  known  to  have  decided 
effects  on  the  state  of  the  public  health;  and  rheumatic  and  gouty  in- 
valids are  proverbial  for  the  certainty  with  which  they  foretell  a  storm 
by  their  sensations — due  to  the  decrease  of  atmospheric  pressure. 

According  to  some  observations  of  Dr.  Ballard,  with  reference  to 
seasons  in  England : 

"  Both  in  the  colder  and  warmer  seasons  of  the  year,  a  comparatively 
dry  condition  of  the  atmosphere  is  more  dangerous  to  the  public  health 
than  a  comparatively  moist  one."  ' 

But  these  observations  of  Dr.  Ballard  seem  to  have  been  confined  to 
dense  populations — to  cities.     How  far  they  may  be  general,  however,  is 

jested  by  the  common  salubrity  of  forests,  notwithstanding  their 
dampness. 

THE    EUCALYPTUS. 

Xo  account  of  forests  would  be  complete  without  an  account  of  the 
prophylactic  properties  of  the  eucalyptus.  By  it,  especially,  is  illustrated 
the  functions  of  drainage,  absorption,  and  distillation  to  a  degree  greatly 
surpassing  that  of  any  other  known  plant. 

The  eucalyptus  exists  in  great  variety,  and  there  is  reasonable  hope 
that  its  climatological  distribution  may  be  greatly  extended,  although, 
hitherto,  its  cultivation  has  met  with  but  very  limited  success  in  climates 
subject  to  frost.  As  just  remarked,  this  tree  exists  in  great  variety,  yet 
observation  has,  until  very  recently,  been  chiefly  limited  to  one  species, 
the  E.  globulus.  There  is  good  ground  for  belief  that  the  anti-miasmatic 
properties,  with  which  this  particular  species  is  credited,  are  at  least  par- 

1  "  On  the  Influence  of  some  of  the  more  Important  Elements  of  Weather  upon 
the  absolute  Amount  of  Sickness."     British  Medical  Journal,  June  12th,  1869. 


102 


FORESTS. 


tially,  if  not  indeed  equally,  possessed  by  several  other  species  of  the 
same  order. 

The  stem  of  the  young  plant  is  four-sided  like  the  Mint  family.  The 
leaves  are  heart-shaped  and  sessile.  On  each  side  of  the  square-shaped 
stem  is  a  depression  within  which  the  leaf  is  attached;  the  cordate  notch 
at  the  base  of  the  leaf  is  so  deep  that  the  lobes  of  one  leaf  lie  upon  another, 
appearing,  at  first  sight,  like  the  upper  side  of  the  perfoliate  leaves  of  the 
honeysuckle.     Each  pair  is  set  at  right  angles  with  those  above  and 


below,  and  with  horizontal  plane,  the  upper  surface  being  exposed  to 
the  sun  and  the  under  in  the  shade,  and,  as  to  plants  generally,  the  under 
surface  only  is  supplied  with  stomata  or  breathing  organs.  They  are  of 
bright,  grassy-green  color,  thin,  soft,  and  juicy.  But  ere  the  plants  have 
attained  the  age  of  ten  years,  a  complete  transformation  of  all  the  stem- 
and  leaf -characteristics  sets  in,  and  in  the  "grown-up"  trees  they  have 
wholly  disappeared. 

Instead  of  a  square-sided,  greenish,  herbaceous-looking  stem,  we  have 
a  huge  white-colored  trunk,  and  gnarled  branches  twisted  into  wild  fan- 
tastic shapes.  The  leaves  are  no  longer  amplexicaul,  but  stand  well  out 
from  the  branch-stems,  twisted  upon  and  suspended  by  long  petioles,  and 
instead  of  being  heart-shaped  and  opposite,  they  are  now  scythe-shaped, 
and  the  plane  of  their  surfaces  wholly  changed— their  edges  turned  to 
the  sun  and  earth— and,  most  remarkable  of  all,  the  stomata,  instead  of 
being  limited  to  one  surface  of  the  leaf,  are  now  distributed  over  both 
surfaces.  The  color,  instead  of  grass  green,  has  turned  to  a  bluish- 
green,  and  gives  significance  to  the  name  of   l '  blue  "  gum  tree.     And 


for]  -  rs. 


L03 


now,  too,  instead  of  the  thin,  soft,  and  juicy  leaf  of  the  young  plant,  Ave 
have  a  thick,  leathery,  and  dry  leaf,  but  doubly  equipped  in  their  power 
of  distilling  moisture,  both  sides  of  the  leaf  work  equally,  and  they  are 
o  placed  that  the  sun's  rays  in  co-operation  with  them,  penetrating  be 
twees  their  vertical  surfaces,  are  scarcely  intercepted  in  the  exercise  of 
their  fullest  force  on  the  surface  of  the  moist  ground  where  these  bene- 
ficent trees  are  most  wont  to  flourish. 


As  seen  with  its  shining  white  bark  in  Tasmania  and  Central  Au- 
stralia, with  its  white  or  light-red  and  dark  shadows  of  curious  foliage 
trembling  in  the  passing  breeze,  and  towering  to  the  height  of  from 
three  hundred  to  four  hundred  feet,  it  is  not  tmfrequently  a  beacon  to 
to  the  thirsty  traveller,  for  it  signifies  his  approach  to  water,  or  at  least 
to  the  bed  of  a  river  or  lake.  Indeed,  it  usually  marks  the  water  courses 
so  well  that  a  distinguished  explorer  observes  "  that  in  travelling  along 
the  Darling  and  the  Lachlan,  I  could  with  ease  trace  the  general  course 
of  the  river  without  approaching  the  banks  until  I  wished  to  encamp."1 


1  F.  V.  Muller,  "  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Victoria,"  part  1,  vol. 


104  FORESTS. 

A  nearly  allied  species,  the  amygdalina  growing  amidst  the  deep 
ravines  of  Dandemony,  in  Victoria,  is  said  to  measure  the  enormous 
height  of  480  feet — even  outstripping  the  great  California  pines — and 
there  is  a  great  number  of  such  trees  growing  in  that  region. 

In  great  contrast,  a  dwarf  species,  called  by  the  natives  "  goborro," 
grows  only  in  places  subject  to  inundation  and  in  swamps,  and  usually 
carries  markings  on  its  stems,  showing  the  height  to  which  the  water  has 
risen.  One  traveller,  Mr.  Oxley,  remarks  that  during  his  journey  there 
was  always  water  to  be  found  where  these  goborro  trees  grew ;  and  Sir 
Thomas  Mitchell  states  that  "  all  permanent  waters  are  invariably  sur- 
rounded by  the  " yarra"  (the  globulus,  called  "yarra"  by  the  natives). 
The  one  thrives  on  the  margins  of  the  stream,  the  lake  and  the  lagoon, 
and  the  other  in  the  midst  of  the  marshes  and  inundations,  however  long 
their  duration. 

Still  another  species,  the  "  clumosa,"  'grows  in  sand  too  barren  and 
too  loose  for  any  other  production,  and  but  for  this  growth  and  prickly 
grass  the  sand  must  have  drifted  so  as  to  overwhelm  the  vegetation  of 
adjacent  districts,  against  which  nature  appears  to  have  curiously  pro- 
vided by  the  abundant  distribution  of  these  two  plants,  so  singularly 
adapted  to  such  soil.  The  root  of  the  "clumosa"  resembles  that  of  a 
large  tree  ;  but  instead  of  a  trunk,  only  a  few  branches  rise  above  the 
ground,  forming  an  open  kind  of  bush,  often  so  low  that  a  man  on 
horseback  may  look  over  it  for  miles.  The  heavy  spreading  roots,  how- 
ever, of  this  dwarf  tree  and  the  prickly  grass  together  occupy  the  ground 
and  seem  intended  to  bind  down  the  sands  of  the  vast  interior  of  Au- 
stralia. Their  disproportioned  roots  also  prevent  the  bushes  from  grow- 
ing very  close  together;  and  the  stems  being  leafless,  except  at  the  top, 
this  kind  of  eucalyptus  is  almost  proof  against  the  running  fires  of  the 
bush. 

In  all,  more  than  twenty  species  of  eucalyptus  have  been  described,, 
possessing  a  variety  of  useful  properties  and  purposes. 

The  groves  of  the  larger  species,  especially,  are  delightfully  fragrant, 
filling  the  air  at  great  distances  with  the  delicate  aroma  of  balm  or 
lemon,  and  other  odors  indescribably  delicious.  All  observers  agree  that 
in  Tasmania,  and  in  those  portions  of  Australia  where  the  eucalypti 
flourish,  miasmatic  fevers  rarely  or  never  exist. 

Yet  it  seems  to  have  taken  the  most  enlightened  nations  about  thirty 
years  after  the  coincidence  of  the  existence  of  the  eucalyptus  growth 
and  the  absence  of  malarial  fevers  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  was  first  de- 
scribed to  establish  their  relations. 

The  eucalyptus  was  first  imported  into  France  by  Iff.  Eamel,  in  1856, 
and  for  anything  that  appears  to  the  contrary,  solely  at  first  as  an  orna- 
mental tree.  The  first  notable  features  of  it  were  its  extremely  rapid 
growth  and  powerful  influence  in  drying  up  marshes,  the  dispersion  of 
mosquitoes  and  other  insects  which  infest   marshy  places.      In  many 


FOKE8T8.  L05 

places,  in  Algeria  especially,  it  was  rapidly  brought  into  requisition  for 
i  he  redempl  Iod  of  marshy  lauds,  and  for  the  same  purpose  it  was  planted 
in  the  valley  of  the  Oshooni,  a  region  of  country  celebrated  alike  Eo 
Fertility  and  its  insalubrity.  And  here  it  seems  to  have  been  first  ob- 
served, within  the  period  of  about  ten  years  from  the  time  the  plants 
were  first  introduced,  that,  together  with  the  drying  up  of  the  marshes, 
malarial  fevers  proportionally  disappeared.  It  has  since  been  introduced 
at  Cape  Colony,  into  the  French  possessions  in  Africa,  into  various 
places  in  the  south  of  France,  Cuba,  and  various  other  countries  ;  but  in 
none  with  decided  results  as  in  the  famous  Campagna  of  Rome,  a  place 
no  less  famous  for  its  deadly  fevers  in  modern,  than  for  the  evidence  of 
its  greatness  in  former  times. 

The  following  sketch  of  the  Campagna,  and  history  of  the  introduc- 
tion and  effects  of  the  eucalyptus  there,  is  by  H.  N.  Draper,  F.C.S.' 

"  One  lovely  morning  in  last  October,  we  left  our  hotel  hard  by  the 
Pantheon,  and  in  a  few  minutes  came  to  the  Tiber.  If  we  except  the 
quaint  and  bright  costumes  of  many  classes  of  the  people,  and  the  ever 
changing  street-scenes  of  Rome,  there  is  nothing  in  the  drive  of  very 
much  interest  until  we  reach  the  river.  Here,  looking  back,  we  see  the 
noble  structure  which  crowns  the  Capitoline  Hill.  The  fine  building  on 
the  farther  bank  of  the  river  is  the  Hospital  of  St.  Michele.  On  this  side 
we  are  passing  the  small  harbor  of  the  steamboats  which  ply  to  Ostia. 
Presently,  the  Marmorata,  or  landing  place  of  the  beautiful  marble  of 
Carrara,  is  reached.  From  here  a  drive  of  a  few  minutes  brings  us  to  the 
cypress-covered  slope  of  the  Protestant  Cemetery,  where,  in  the  shadow 
of  the  pyramid  of  Certius,  lie  the  graves  of  Shelley  and  Keats.  Apart 
from  the  interest  attached  to  these  two  lonely  tombs,  and  the  memories 
aroused  by  their  touching  epitaphs,  no  Englishman  can  resist  this  secluded 
spot,  and  look  without  deep  feeling  upon  the  last  resting-places  of  his 
countrymen,  who  have  died  so  many  miles  from  home  and  friends.  The 
cemetery  is  kept  in  order  and  neatness,  and  flowers  grow  upon  nearly 
all  the  graves. 

"  Our  route  next  lay  along  the  base  of  that  remarkable  enigma,  the 
Monte  Testaccio,  a  hill  as  high  as  the  London  Monument  or  the  Yen- 
dome  columns  at  Paris,  made  entirely  of  broken  Roman  pots  and  tiles, 
as  old  perhaps  as  the  time  of  Nero!  Leaving  behind  this  singular  heap 
of  earthenware,  we  thread  long  avenues  of  locust  trees,  and  presently, 
passing  through  the  gate  of  St.  Paul,  reach  the  magnificent  basilica  of 
that  name.  Nor  can  I  pause  here  to  dwell  upon  the  marvels  of  this 
noble  temple;  or  to  tell  of  its  glorious  aisles  and  column-supported  gal- 
leries; of  its  lake-like  marble  floor,  or  of  the  wealth  of  malachite,  of  lapis 
lazuli,  of  verae  antique,  of  alabaster,  and  of  gold,  that  has  been  lavished 
upon  the  decoration  of  its  shrine.     I  must  stop,  however,  to  note  that 

1  From  a  contribution  to  Chambers'  Journal,  for  March  26th,  1881. 


106  FORESTS. 

nowhere  lias  the  presence  of  the  dread  malaria  made  itself  so  obvious  to 
myself.  We  had  scarcely  entered  the  church  when  we  became  conscious 
of  an  odor  which  recalled  at  once  the  retort-house  of  gas-works,  the 
bilge  water  on  board  ship,  and  the  atmosphere  of  a  dissecting  room;  and 
we  were  obliged  to  make  a  hasty  retreat.  There  could  be  little  doubt 
that  the  gaseous  emanations  that  produced  this  intolerable  odor  were 
equally  present  in  the  campagna  outside,  but  that  in  the  church  they 
were  pent  up  and  concentrated. 

"  Even  did  the  space  admit,  this  is  not  the  place  to  enter  into  pro- 
longed dissertation  on  the  history  or  causes  of  this  terrible  scourge  of  the 
Soman  Campagna,  the  fever  producing  malaria.  The  name  expresses 
the  unquestionable  truth  that  it  is  a  gaseous  emanation  from  the  soil; 
and  all  that  is  certainly  known  about  it  may  be  summed  up  in  a  very  few 
lines.  The  vast  undulating  plain  known  as  the  Campagna  was  ages  ago 
overflowed  by  the  sea,  and  owes  its  present  aspect  to  volcanic  agency. 
Of  this  the  whole  soil  affords  ample  evidence.  Not  only  are  lava,  per- 
perino,  and  the  volcanic  puzzuolana  abundant,  but  in  many  places,  as  in 
Bracciano  and  Baccano,  are  to  be  seen  the  remains  of  ancient  craters. 
When  the  Campagna  was  in  the  earliest  phase  of  its  history,  it  was  one 
fertile  garden,  interspersed  with  thriving  towns  and  villages.  It  was  also 
the  theatre  of  events  which  resulted  in  making  Rome  the  mistress  of  the 
world.  This  very  supremacy  was  the  final  cause  of  its  ruin  and  of  its 
present  desolation.  While  the  land  remained  in  the  possession  of  small 
holders,  every  acre  was  assiduously  tilled  and  drained;  but  when  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  large  landed  proprietors,  who  held  it  from  the  mere 
lust  of  possession,  it  became  uncared  for  and  uncultivated.  Filtering  into 
the  soil  loaded  with  easily  decomposed  sulphur  compounds,  the  decom- 
posing vegetable  matter  finds  no  exit  through  the  underlying  rock.  The 
consequences  may  be  imagined,  but  to  those  who  have  not  experienced 
them,  are  not  easily  described.  This  once  fertile  land  is  now  a  horrid 
waste,  untouched,  except  at  rare  intervals,  by  the  hand  of  the  farmer, 
and  untenanted  save  by  the  herdsman.  Even  he,  during  the  months  of 
summer  when  the  malaria  is  at  worst,  is  compelled,  if  he  will  avoid  the 
fever,  to  go  with  his  flocks  to  the  mountains.  It  may  be  mentioned,  in 
passing,  that  the  malaria  fever,  or  '  Roman  fever/  as  it  has  been  called, 
has  been  the  subject  of  recent  investigation  by  Professor  Tommasi-Cru- 
delli,  of  Rome,  who  attributes  it  to  the  presence  of  an  organism,  to  which 
the  specific  name  of  Bacillus  malaria  has  been  given. 

"  Leaving  St.  Paul,  we  pursued  for  a  short  time  the  Ostian  road;  and 
at  poor  Osteria,  where  chestnuts,  coarse  bread,  and  wine,  were  the  only 
obtainable  refreshments,  our  route  turned  to  the  left,  along  a  road  pow- 
dered with  the  reddish  dust  of  the  pozzuolana — the  mineral  which  forms 
the  basis  of  the  original  "Roman  cement,"  large  masses  of  which  rock 
form  the  road-side  fences.  After  a  drive  of  perhaps  half  an  hour,  we 
found  ourselves  at  the  Monastery  of  Tre  Fontane  (three  fountains).  The 


FOK I  1 0 7 

• 

Abbey  of  the  Tre  Fontane  comprises  within  its  precincts  three  churches, 
<>!'  which  the  earliest  dates  from  the  ninth  century.  One  of  these,  San 
Paolo  alle  Tre  Tbntcme,  gives  its  name  to  the  monastery.  A  monk, 
wearing  the  brown  robe  and  sandals  of  the  Trappist  order,  met  us  at  the 
gate.  The  contrast  now  presented  between  the  sterile  semi-volcanic 
country  around,  and  the  smiling  oasis  which  faces  us,  is  striking.  Here 
are  fields  which  have  borne  good  grass;  some  sloping  hills  covered  with 
vines;  and  directly  in  the  fore-ground  almost  a  forest  of  eucalypt 
trees. 

"We  have  come  to  learn  about  the  eucalyptus;  and  our  guide  takes 
quite  kindly  to  the  role  of  informant.  What  follows  is  derived  from 
his  viva  voce  teaching,  from  my  own  observations  on  the  spot,  and 
from  a  very  interesting  pamphlet,  printed  at  Home  in  1879,  and  en- 
titled 'Culture  de  l'Eucalyptus  aux  Trois  Fontanes/  by  M.  Auguste 
Vallee. 

"  Before  the  year  1868,  the  abbey  was  entirely  deserted.  It  is  true 
that  a  haggard-looking  monk  was  to  be  found  there,  who  acted  as  cice- 
rone to  visitors  to  the  churches;  but  even  he  was  obliged  to  sleep  each 
night  in  Eome.  The  place  obtained  so  evil  reputation  that  it  was  locally 
known  as  'The  Tomb.'  There  are  now  twenty-nine  brothers  attached 
to  the  monastery,  all  of  whom  sleep  there  each  night.  This  remarkable 
result,  though  no  doubt  to  a  great  extent  due  to  the  drainage  and  altera- 
tion of  the  character  of  the  soil  by  cultivation,  is  unquestionably  mainly 
owing  to  the  planting  of  the  eucalyptus.  It  would  take  long  to  tell  of 
the  heroic  perseverance  of  these  monks;  of  the  frequent  discouragements; 
of  the  labor  intermixed  by  sickness;  of  the  gaps  made  in  the  number  by 
the  fatal  malaria,  and  the  undaunted  courage  in  overcoming  obstacles 
which  has  culminated  in  the  result  now  achieved.  Let  us  pass  to  the 
consideration  of  the  actual  means  by  which  so  happy  a  change  in  the 
immediate  surroundings  has  been  brought  about.  At  Tre  Fontane  are 
cultivated  at  least  eleven  varieties  of  eucalyptus.  Some  of  these,  as 
E.  viminalis  and  E.  botryoides,  flourish  best  where  the  ground  is  natu- 
rally humid;  E.  reHnifera  and  E.  meriadora  love  best  a  dryer  soil.  The 
variety  globulus  (blue  gum  tree)  possesses  a  happy  adaptability  to  nearly 
any  possible  condition  of  growth.  At  the  monastery,  as  in  most  elevated 
parts  of  the  Campagna,  the  soil  is  of  a  volcanic  origin,  and  there  is  not 
much  even  of  that,  often  only  eight  and  rarely  more  than  sixteen  inches 
overlying  the  compact  tufa.  But  with  the  aid  of  very  simple  machinery 
the  Trappists  bore  into  the  subsoil,  blast  it  with  dynamite,  and  find,  in 
the  admixture  of  its  debris  with  the  arable  earth,  the  most  suitable  soil 
for  the  reception  of  the  young  plants. 

"  The  seeds  are  sown  in  autumn  in  a  mixture  of  ordinary  garden 
earth,  the  soil  of  the  country,  and  a  little  thoroughly  decomposed  manure. 
This  is  done  in  wooden  boxes,  which,  with  the  object  of  keeping  the 
seeds  damp,  are  lightly  covered  until  germination  has  taken  place.  When 


108  FORESTS. 

the  young  plants  have  attained  to  about  two  inches,  they  are  transferred 
to  very  small  flower-pots,  where  they  remain  until  the  time  arrives  for 
their  final  transplantation.  The  best  time  for  this  operation  is  the  spring, 
because  the  seedlings  have  then  quite  eight  months  in  which  to  gather 
strength  against  the  winter  cold.  One  precaution  taken  in  planting  is 
worth  notice.  Each  plant  is  placed  in  holes  of  like  depth  and  diameter. 
In  this  way  no  individual  rootlet  is  more  favored  than  its  fellow  and,  as 
each  absorbs  its  soil  nutriment  equally,  the  regularity  of  growth  and  final 
form  of  the  tree  is  assured.  A  space  of  three  feet  is  left  between  each 
seedling;  but  so  rapid  is  the  growth  that  in  the  following  year  it  is  found 
necessary  to  uproot  nearly  one-half  of  the  plants,  which  finally  find 
themselves  distant  from  each  other  about  five  feet.  From  this  time, 
much  care  is  required  in  weeding  and  particularly  in  sheltering  from  the 
wind,  for  the  stem  of  the  eucalyptus  is  particularly  fragile,  and  violent 
storms  sometimes  rage  in  the  Campagna.  The  other  great  enemy  of  the 
tree  is  cold,  and  this  offers  an  almost  insurmountable  obstacle  to  its 
successful  culture  in  Great  Britain.  It  seems  to  be  well  proved  that 
most  of  the  species  will  survive  a  winter  in  which  the  temperature  does 
not  fall  below  23  °  Fahr.  How  fortunate  is  the  circumstance  that  the 
culture  of  the  tree  at  Eome,  may  be  learned  from  the  fact  that  the  mean 
lowest  temperature  registered  at  the  observatory  of  the  Roman  College 
during  the  years  18G3-*7-4  was  23.18  .  Once  only  in  those  years  a  cold  of 
20°  was  registered,  and  even  that  does  not  seem  to  have  injured  the 
plants;  but  when,  in  1875,  the  minimum  temperature  fell  to  16J,  the 
result  was  a  loss  in  a  single  night  of  nearly  half  the  plantation  of  the 
year. 

"  But  when,  as  at  Tre  Fontane,  the  conditions  of  growth  are  on  the 
whole  favorable,  the  rapidity  of  that  growth  approaches  the  marvellous. 
The  mean  height,  for  example,  of  three  trees,  chosen  for  measurement  by 
M.  Yallee  in  1879,  was  twenty-six  feet,  and  the  mean  circumference 
twenty-eight  inches.  These  trees  had  been  planted  in  1875,  or  in  other 
words  were  little  more  than  four  years  old.  Other  trees  of  eight  years' 
growth  were  fifty  feet  high  and  nearly  three  feet  in  circumference  at 
their  largest  part.  These  figures  refer  to  eucalyptus  globulus,  which 
certainly  grows  faster  than  the  other  species;  and  it  must  be  remembered 
that  in  warmer  climates  the  growth  is  even  still  more  rapid.  I  have 
seen,  for  example,  trees  of  eucalyptus  resinifera  at  Blidah,  in  Algeria, 
which  at  only  five  years  old  were  already  quite  sixty  feet  high. 

"The  question  of  how  and  why  the  eucalyptus  exercises  sanitary 
changes  so  important  as  those  which  have  been  effected  at  this  little  oasis 
in  the  Campagna  may  be  best  answered  when  two  remarkable  properties 
which  characterize  many  of  the.  species  have  been  shortly  considered.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  enormous  quantity  of  water  which  the  plant  can  absorb 
.from  the  soil.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  square  metre— which 
may  roughly  be  taken  as  equal  to  a  square  yard — of  the  leaves  of  the 


P0BEST8.  109 

sucalyptus  globulus  will  exhale  into  the  atmosphere  during  twelve  hoars 
four  pints  of  water.     Now,  as  this  square  metre  of  leaves — of  course, 
caloulal  ion  inolndesboth  surfaces — weighs  two  and  three-quarter  pounds, 

it  will  he  easily  Been  that  any  gives  weight  of  eucalyptus  Lea 
transfer  from  the  soil  to  the  atmosphere  nearly  twice  that  freight  of 
waiei-.  M.  Vallee  i\m^  not,  hesitate  to  say  that  under  the  full  breeze  and 
sunshine — which  could  necessarily  form  no  factor  in  such  accurate 
periments  as  those  conducted  by  him — the  evaporation  of  water  would 
be  equal  to  four  or  five  times  the  weight  of  the  leaves.  One  ceases  to 
wonder  at  these  figures,  on  learning  that  it  has  been  found  possible  to 
count  on  a  square  millimetre  of  the  under  surface  of  a  single  leaf  of 
eucalyptus  fflobulus  no  less  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  stomata  or 
hreathing-pores.  And  it  now  begins  to  be  intelligible  that,  if  such  an 
enormous  quantity  of  water  can  be  transferred  from  earth  to  air,  it  may 
be  possible  that  an  atmosphere,  which  without  such  aid  would  be  laden 
with  malarious  exhalations,  may  be  rendered  pure  by  this  process  of  leaf- 
distillation:  the  putrescible  constituents  of  the  stagnant  water  are  ab- 
sorbed by  the  roots,  and  become  part  of  the  vegetable  tissue  of  the 
tree. 

"  But  this  is  not  all.  Like  those  of  the  pine,  the  leaves  of  all  spe- 
cies of  the  eucalyptus  secrete  large  quantities  of  an  aromatic  essential 
oil.  It  has  recently  been  shown — and  the  statement  has  been  very  im- 
pressively put  by  Mr.  Kingzett — that,  under  the  combined  action  of  air 
and  moisture,  oils  of  the  turpentine  class  are  rapidly  oxidized,  and  that, 
as  a  result  of  this  oxidation,  large  quantities  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen 
are  produced.  Now,  peroxide  of  hydrogen  is — being  itself  one  of  the 
most  potent  oxidizers  known — a  very  active  disinfectant;  and  as  the 
leaves  of  some  species  of  the  eucalyptus  contain  in  each  hundred  pounds 
from  three  to  six  pounds  of  essential  oil,  we  can  hardly  avoid  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  oxygen-carrying  property  of  the  oil  is  an  important  ele- 
ment in  the  malaria-destroying  power  of  the  genus.  Moreover,  the 
oxidation  of  the  oil  is  attended  by  the  formation  of  large  quantities  of 
substances  analogous  in  their  properties  to  camphor;  and  the  reputation 
of  camphor,  as  an  hygienic  agent,  seems  sufficiently  well  founded  to 
allow  us  to  admit  at  least  the  possibility  of  these  bodies  playing  some  part 
in  so  beneficent  a  scheme. 

"  As  we  travelled  the  coast-line  via  Civita  Vecchia  to  Leghorn,  we 
could  not  help  being  struck  by  the  fact  that  the  precincts  of  all  the 
railway-stations  were  thickly  planted  with  the  eucalyptus.  And  looking 
back  at  not  only  what  has  been  actually  accomplished  during  the  past 
ten  years,  but  to  the  important  fund  of  information  which  has  been 
accumulated,  one  can  only  look  forward  hopefully  and  with  encourage- 
ment to  the  future  of  the  eucalyptus  in  the  Koman  Campagna." 

In  the  United  States,  the  cultivation  of  the  eucalyptus,  for  its  pro- 
phylactic properties,  has  attracted  but  little  attention.    The  tree  is  said  to 


110  FORESTS. 

be  common  in  Southern  California,  and  the  late  T.  M.  Logan,  M.D., 
Secretary  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Health,  made  a  special  report 
upon  its  growth  in  that  State,  ten  years  ago;  but  since  that  time  there 
has  been  little  or  nothing  more  written  about  it. 

It  is  quite  clear,  from  the  description  of  its  climatic  adaptability  and 
cultivation  in  the  Campagna  of  Rome  and  other  places  abroad,  that  it 
might  be  cultivated  to  very  great  advantage  in  several  of  the  Southern 
States.  A  plant  of  such  wonderful  qualities  and  properties,  that  springs 
from  the  seed  in  five  years  to  the  height  of  forty  to  sixty  feet,  and  in 
sixteen  years  to  the  height  of  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet,  with  a  trunk 
seventeen  to  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter,  and  possessed,  the  while, 
with  the  power  of  absorbing  water  four  or  five  times  the  weight  of  its 
leaves  daily,  which  it  digests  and  eliminates  as  ethereal  vapor,  aromatiz- 
ing the  air  for  great  distances  around;  that  a  number  of  such  plants  pos- 
sessed of  such  properties  should  exercise  a  powerful  influence  over  the 
region  of  their  growth  is,  indeed,  nowise  surprising;  and  it  is  surely 
worthy  of  the  attention  of  all  persons  who  reside  in  regions  where  it  can 
be  utilized. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
OLIMATOLOGIOAL    TOPOGRAPHY     IX    GENERAL. 

SIZE,  POSITION",  AND  SHAPE  01'  MASSES  OF  LAND — SURFACE  CONDITION'S 
—  BELATlON"  TO  OCEAN"  CURRENTS  AND  WINDS — OUTLINE  AND  GEN- 
ERAL  CONFIGURATION. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  proportions  of  land  and  water,  and 
the  position  and  shape  of  sea- coasts,  hold  important  relations  with  the 
circulation  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  distribution  of  heat;  that  the 
ocean,  traversed  in  various  directions  by  currents  of  warm  and  cold  water, 
exercises  a  powerful  influence  over  the  temperature  of  the  land  which 
borders  upon  it;  and  that  the  temperature  of  the  air,  everywhere, 
greatly  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  bottom  of  the  aerial  ocean, 
whether  it  is  land  or  water;  and  if  the  former,  on  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
face with  regard  to  vegetation  or  aridity,  plain  or  variable,  mountainous 
or  otherwise;  and  if  the  latter,  whether  it  is  ocean,  lake,  or  river. 

For  a  clear  appreciation  of  these  influences,  it  is  necessary  to  compare 
the  relations  of  other  quarters  of  the  world  with  North  America  in  the 
general  distribution  of  climate. 

The  relative  size,  position,  and  shape  of  continental  masses  con- 
stitute important  agencies  in  centralizing  atmospheric  temperature  and 
directing  ocean  currents  in  the  distributing  of  heat.  These  differences 
account  for  the  different  temperatures  in  the  same  latitudes  of  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres,  and  on  the  same  meridians  of  the  eastern  and 
western  continents.  They  afford  abundant  reason  for  the  accumulation 
of  heat  in  low  latitudes  where  the  heat  transmitted  by  the  sun  is  great  at 
all  times,  and  for  the  accumulation  of  heat  over  the  large  areas  of  Africa 
and  Asia  thus  favorably  situated  in  the  low  latitudes,  and  which,  by 
proximity,  greatly  add  to  the  heat  of  Southern  Europe.  The  effect  of 
mass  in  higher  latitudes,  where  the  proportion  of  radiating  or  refrigerat- 
ing time  is  much  greater  than  that  in  which  the  sun's  heat  is  received, 
is  due  to  the  same  cause. 

The  great  expansion  of  the  American  continent  in  the  higher  lati- 
tudes exaggerates  the  difference  caused  by  the  diminished  mass  south. 
The  Arctic  and  sub-Arctic  regions  are  therefore  colder  than  those  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  though  this  effect  is  more  decidedly  confined  to  the 
latitudes  in  which  it  originates  than  the  other;  the  cold  at  the  north 


112  CLMATOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPHY    IX    GENERAL. 

influences  lower  latitudes  less  than  the  heat  at  the  south  influences  the 
higher.  The  refrigeration  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  this  continent  is  exces- 
sive in  winter  because  there  is  no  accumulation  of  heat  south  to  balance 
it.  as  the  land  narrows  off  to  so  great  an  extent.  There  is  no  Africa, 
Arabia,  or  India  to  balance  our  Siberia;  and  consequently  our  con- 
tinent, as  a  whole,  has  a  lower  temperature  than  the  corresponding 
latitudes  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  While  the  Eastern  hemisphere 
comprehends  a  very  large  area  bordering  on  the  tropics,  the  Western 
comprehends  very  little,  and  as  the  effect  of  land  areas  to  increase  the 
temperature  by  the  accumulation  of  heat,  or  to  diminish  it  by  radiation, 
depends  wholly  upon  the  sun's  altitude,  the  middle  latitudes  are  softened 
in  winter  temperature  by  the  mass  of  land  on  the  south  in  greater  pro- 
portion than  they  are  refrigerated  by  land  at  the  north;  hence  the  mild- 
ness of  the  climate  of  the  south  of  Europe  as  compared  with  the  same 
latitudes  in  the  United  States. 

Humbolt  remarks:  "  As  in  the  old  continent,  European  civilization 
has  had  its  principal  seat  on  the  western  coast,  it  could  not  fail  to  be  early 
remarked  that  under  equal  degrees  of  latitude  the  opposite  eastern  litoral 
region  of  the  United  States  of  North  America  was  several  degrees  colder 
in  mean  annual  temperature  than  Europe;  which  is,  as  it  were,  a 
western  peninsula  of  Asia,  and  bears  much  the  same  relation  to  it  as 
Brittany  does  to  the  rest  of  France.  The  fact,  however,  escaped  notice 
that  these  differences  decrease  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  latitudes, 
and  that  they  are  hardly  perceptible  below  30°.  But  the  mildness  of  the 
winter  in  New  California  shows  that  in  reference  to  their  mean  annual 
temperature,  the  west  coasts  of  America  and  Europe,  under  the  same 
parallels,  scarcely  present  any  differences."1 

Blodget  observes  in  regard  to  this:  "  For  the  east  coast  we  have 
then  similar  lines  and  configuration  to  those  of  Asia;  and  near  this  coast 
there  is  the  same  class  of  sea  currents,  to  whatever  cause  these  sea  cur- 
rents may  be  due.  Commodore  Perry  has  shown  the  existence  there  of 
a  stream  of  warm  water  strikingly  similar  to  the  Gulf  Stream  of  the 
Atlantic;  and  if  these  have  their  origin  in  a  confinement  of  the  heated 
waters  of  the  tropics  on  that  side  of  the  continent,  the  causes  and  conse- 
quences should  be,  as  they  are,  similar.  Whatever  portion  of  the  coast 
is  within  the  influence  of  this  current  in  either  case  is  affected  similarly, 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  rule,  the  softened  climate  of  Japan  and  of 
the  islands  of  the  vicinity,  and  their  contrast  with  the  climate  in  the 
same  latitudes  are  very  noticeable.  The  great  storms  at  sea  off  this 
coast,  also  appear  to  be  like  those  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Atlan- 
tic coast.  Whether  the  current  would  cease  with  a  different  line  of 
coast  in  either  case  we  need  not  inquire  in  the  present  purpose,  nor 
whether  the  hypothesis  at  some  time  proposed  be  true,  that   the  evi- 

1  "  Views  of  Nature,"  p.  99. 


CLIMAToL()(JI«'AL    Tul'uCKAI'IIY     I.N    < .  KXERAL.  113 

donees  of  a  high  temperature  and  semi-tropical  vegetation  in  Arctic  Amer- 
ica prove  the  existence  of  a  current  like  the  Gulf  Stream  over  the  then 
submerged  Mississippi  plain  and  eastern  part  of  the  continent.  With 
similar  lines  of  configuration  on  that  side  of  the  continent,  in  each  c 
we  find  similar  physical  phenomena  in  all  that  may  control  existing 
olimal 

"  With  the  western  side  the  configuration  isnot  the  same,  and,  a 
fore  intimated,  the  continent  is  believed  to  be  rendered  colder,  relative],. 
by  this  fact,  at  least  to  the  degree  of  the  difference  of  land  and  water 
temperatures  near  the  borders  of  the  tropics,  which  difference  may  be 
assigned  at  nearly  1°  of  the  thermometric  mean.  In  comparison  with 
Europe,  there  is  a  further  disadvantage  of  position  in  the  much  greater 
distance  of  the  coast  from  the  warm-water  current  passing  northward  on 
the  east  coast  of  each  continent.  Europe  is  directly  and  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  Gulf  Stream,  but  the  Japanese  stream  is  too  far  off  to 
be  felt  directly  on  the  Pacific  Coast  of  America;  and  it  is  in  truth  felt 
there  quite  directly  in  a  reverse  character,  as  the  answering  or  cold  cur- 
rent— that  which  in  greater  part  returns  west  of,  or  beneath  the  Atlantic 
heated  stream,  but  which  in  the  Pacific  comes  full  upon  the  coast  of 
America  in  middle  latitudes,  while  the  warm  waters  have  been  spent  in 
expanding  over  an  immense  ocean  surface.  This  result  is  due  to  posi- 
tion and  exterior  configuration,  and,  in  these  two  cases,  in  conjunction 
with  the  great  altitudes  of  the  western  borders  of  this  continent,  all  the 
differences  of  temperature  between  the  two  divisions  of  the  temnerate 
latitudes  may  be  found.  The  last  cause  named  is  not  so  general  or  con- 
trolling'' as  the  first,  because  the  cold  current  is  a  comparatively  narrow 
mass  at  the  point  of  its  rising  on  the  coast,  and  evidently  is  not  felt 
north  of  the  45th  parallel.  The  average  reduction  due  to  both  causes  is 
less  than  %'   on  the  mean  temperature. 

"The  position  of  the  continents  relative  to  the  prevalent  winds 
of  the  temperate  latitudes  is  of  great  importance,  and  necessarily  a 
part  of  the  configuration.  In  referring  to  it,  it  becomes  necessary  to  as- 
sume what  is  not  universally  conceded,  namely,  a  belt  of  westerly  winds 
as  the  great  characteristic  of  these  latitudes.  In  proof  that  such  a 
belt  exists,  the  difference  of  temperature  of  the  opposite  coasts  of 
both  seems  a  conclusive  evidence.  If  no  atmospheric  circulation 
modified  this  distribution,  by  conveying  the  heated  or  refrigerated 
air  in  some  direction,  there  is  no  reason  for  any  such  difference  as  we 
find  to  exist.  The  maximum  of  continental  effect  in  refrigeration  and 
aridity  should  be  found  in  the  centre  of  the  continent,  and  its  degree 
should  be  as  great  on  the  west  as  on  the  east.  But  the  differences  are 
scarcely  less  extraordinary  at  the  west  of  Xorth  America  as  compared 
with  the  east — Sitka  with  Labrador — than  in  the  comparison  of  Eng- 
land and  Kamtschatka.  England  being  directly  influenced  by  the  Gulf 
Stream.     "Why  it  is  so  influenced  is  seen  in  this  atmospheric  circulation 


114  CLIMATOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPH  V    LN*    GEXERAL. 

itself,  which  clearly  carries  the  air  eastward  for  all  those  temperate  lati- 
tudes; the  heat  and  humidity  of  the  masses  transferred  being  gradually 
exhausted  until  the  maximum  of  continental  effect  is  thrown  nearly  to 
the  eastern  coasts  of  both.  This  very  evident  fact  would  be  conclusive 
if  the  surface  wind  gave  no  evidence  in  conformity,  since  a  superior 
system,  or  superior  aerial  currents  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  produce  a 
marked  result.  But  we  have  the  observed  winds  of  all  the  middle  lati- 
tudes to  confirm  the  assumed  circulation.  Three-fourths  of  the  number 
and  force  of  all  the  winds  recorded  at  35°  to  50"J  X.  latitude  are  from 
some  points  into  wbich  west  enters,  and  their  average  resultant,  as 
traversed  in  an  accurate  manner,  is  within  two  or  three  points  from  due 
west.  The  greater  facts  of  temperature  distribution  between  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  continent  have  their  full  solution  here. 

"  Under  this  system  of  atmospheric  circulation  the  altitude  of  bor- 
dering districts  becomes  more  important  than  before,  and  in  may  be  said, 
in  brief,  that  the  great  altitude  of  the  mountains  and  plateaux  nearly 
bordering  on  our  Pacific  coast  develops  at  once  an  extreme  continental 
effect,  and  aids  in  rendering  the  continent  unduly  cool  and  dry.  This  is 
the  remaining  cause  of  difference  between  Europe  and  America,  and  in 
the  colder  seasons  its  influence  is  very  decided,  as  may  be  seen  in  a 
brief  reference  to  the  facts  of  temperature  and  rain  distribution  here. 

"  In  the  view  here  taken  of  the  system  of  atmospheric  circulation 
lying  at  the  base  of  the  climatology  of  these  latitudes,  the  great  altitude 
of  the  continental  mass  near  the  Pacific  by  no  means  alters  the  course  of 
the  circulation,  or  shuts  off  the  west  wind  of  the  upper  and  more  general 
movement  by  any  impassable  wall.  These  winds  are  as  regular  as  be- 
fore, or  elsewhere,  though  they  are  necessarily  cold  and  somewhat  defi- 
cient in  moisture  at  that  elevation,  and  therefore  lose  much  of  the  heat 
and  moisture  they  have  over  the  ocean  surface  before  reaching  the  interior. 
The  prevalent  winds  are  west  winds,  at  all  points  sufficiently  elevated 
to  eliminate  the  local  effect,  and  the  course  of  the  clouds  above  the 
lower  strata  is  equally  regular.  In  short,  there  is  no  evidence  that  this 
wall  modifies  the  atmospheric  circulation  in  its  more  general  character, 
or  in  that  believed  to  be  central  at  the  equator,  though  local  winds  and 
movements  of  a  peculiar  character  are  developed  at  many  points,  subor- 
dinate to  the  general  one,  and  the  low,  warm,  humid  sea  atmosphere 
which  so  greatly  influences  the  climate  of  Europe  is  almost  entirely  cut 
off. 

"  There  is  another  effect  of  configuration  which  maybe  noticed  here. 
It  is  the  supposed  deflection  of  the  northeast  trade  wind  up  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  by  the  great  altitude  of  the  continental  mass  in  Mexico. 
Whether  such  a  deflection  occurs  or  not  it  is  difficult  to  say;  and  altitudes- 
like  those  of  the  central  regions  of  Mexico  may  be  found  to  exert  a  great 
influence  on  the  atmospheric  movements  in  low  latitudes.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  this  normal  movement  mav  be  checked  at  that  dis- 


0LIMA.TOLOGI0AL   TOPOOBAPHY    in    OEOTEBAL.  i  1 ."» 

t  rid ,  and  thai  theatl  raol  ion  of  the  area  of  rarefying  air  over  these  plains, 
as  they  become  heated  in  Bpring  and  summer,  may  Induce  the  moderate 

winds    from   the   south,   southwest,  and    southeast,  known   to    belong  to 

nearly  all   the  Gulf  ooasl    ami    Mississippi  Valley  during  the   winter 
months. 

"  The  vertical  configuration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  is  peculiarly  fa- 
vorable to  the  relative  development  of  such  a  result,  as  it  is  particularly 
open  and  low  on  the  south  everywhere.  The  whole  of  the  immense 
plain  sloping  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  perpetuates  the  conditions  first  in- 
stituted at  its  southern  border,  and  the  prevalent  south,  southeast,  and 
southwest  winds  are  but  the  necessary  incidents  of  the  high  temperature 
of  the  plain,  in  the  light  aspirate  degree  in  which  they  blow  for  the 
wanner  months.  They  are  not  identified  with  a  large  mass  of  air,  and 
are  almost  always  crossed  above  by  the  clouds  borne  on  the  prevalent 
west  winds,  which  maybe  set  down  as  well  defined  at  and  beyond  the 
thirty-fifth  parallel."  ' 

1  Op.  cit.,  pp.  117-120. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

CLIMATOLOGICAL     TOPOGRAPHY     OF     THE     UNITED 

STATES. 

TABULATED    STATISTICS    AND    METEOROLOGICAL    DATA. 


RELATIVE  PROPORTION  OF  DEATHS  FROM  CONSUMPTION  AND  NERVOUS 
DISEASES  TO  DEATHS  FROM  ALL  CAUSES — BAROMETRICAL  RECORD — 
TEMPERATURE  RECORD — HUMIDITY  RECORD — PRECIPITATION  RECORD 
— ELEVATION  ABOVE  SEA  LEVEL — BAROMETRICAL  REDUCTIONS  TO 
SEA    LEVEL. 

TABLE. 

Proportion  of  Death*  from  Consumption  to  Deaths  from  all  Causes  in 
the  United  States,  Deduced  from  U.  8.  Census  Report  for  1880. 


States  and  Territories. 


United  States 

Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas .    

California 

Colorado  

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

Districtof  Columbia..; 

Florida ; 

Georgia ! 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana j 

Iowa 

Kansas , 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland  

Ma-sachusetts ! 

Michigan ' 

Minnesota 


3  ■/.  m 
3« 


a  5 
|| 

a  a 


States  and  Territories. 


■Jr-1 

r  z 

§J 

*-  — 

-  ■ 

9  z 

_ 

■/. 

§  £• 

H 

1 

So 

C.i 


'rjC.^xi 

91,551 

12.09 

17,929 

1,729 

9. 

291 

18 

6.9 

14,812 

955 

6.3 

11.580 

1,802 

15.5 

2,. 547 

210 

8.2 

8,179 

1.3^9 

16. 

1.304 

116 

8.8 

2,212 

357 

16.1 

4,192 

793 

18.9 

3,159 

263 

8.3 

21,549 

1,879 

8.7 

323 

22 

6.8 

45.017 

4,653 

10.3 

31.213 

3,943 

12.3 

19,377 

1,925 

9.9 

15,160 

1,117 

7.3 

33,718 

3,733 

11.5 

14,514 

1,514 

10.4 

9,523 

1,829 

19.2 

16,919 

8,381 

12. 

33.149 

5,207 

15.7 

19.743 

2,613 

13.3 

9,037 

-4- 

9.3 

Mississippi 14,683 

Missouri 36, 6 1 5 

Montana ;      336 

Nebraska 5,930 

Nevada ■      728 

New  Hampshire. . .    j  5,584 

New  Jersey 18.474 

New  Mexico '  2,436 

New  York 88,332 

North  Carolina 21,547 

Ohio 142,610 

Oregon 1,864 

Pennsylvania 63,881 

Rhode"  Island 4,702 

South  Carolina 15,728 

Tennessee 25.919 

Texas 24. 735 

Utah |  2,314 

Vermont l  4.024 

Virginia 24,681 

Washington  Ter. . . .       755 

West  Virginia .  7,518 

Wisconsin 15,011 

Wyoming  Territory.       189 


1,287    8.7 

3,604'  9.3 

18,  5.3 

416    7. 

61    8.3 

866  15.5 

2,630  14.2 

50l  2.1 

12,858  14.5 

2,130    9.9 

5.912  13.8 

226  12.1 

8.073  12.6 

691  14.8 

1.543    9.8 

3,767  14.5 

1.622    6.5 

69   3. 

813  20.2 

3,025  12.3 

100  13.2 

96912.9 

1,681  11.2 

5    2.6 


CLIMA.TOLCHHCAL    T()I'< xiUAl'Il Y    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


117 


I'uor.Aisi.Y  no  country  in  the  world  possesses  a  greater  variety  of 
olimate  than  the  United  States.  This  is  primarily  due  to  the  conditions 
which  have  already  been  described;  and  secondarily  to  those  conditions 
which  will  now  engage  our  attention — the  variable  topography  of  the 
country. 

As  a  basis  and  reference  of,  and  for  the  description  in  detail 
which  follows,  tabulated  statistics  are  here  introduced,  constructed  out 
of,  or  extracted  from  the  material  and  sources  credited. 

TABLE. 

Proportion  of  Deaths  from  Nervous  Diseases  to  Deaths  from  all  Causes 
in  the  United  States,  Deduced  from  the  U.  S.  Census  Report 

for  1880. 


States  and  Territories. 


United  States 

Alabama  

Arizona 

Arkansas  

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois. 

Indiana 

Iowa  

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 


~!J3 


756.893 

17,929 

291 

14,812 

11,530 

2,547 

8.179 

1,304 

2,212 

4,192 

3,159 

21,549 

323 

45,017 

31,213 

19,377 

15,160 

33,718 

14,514 

9,523 

16,919 

33,149 

19,743 

9,037 


•—  r. 

hr   en 

<■    oj 

p  V 

|J 

en  oj 

■B  3 

CD  > 

o 

83,670 

1,675 

19 

1,424 

1,306 

182 

1,381 

105 

291 

5 1 5 

358 

1.879 

•27 

5,146 

3,456 

1,931 

1,306 

2,612 

1,761 

1,136 

2,062 

3,837 

1,902 

760 


<Cfl 


11. 

9.3 
6.5 
9.6 
11. 
7.1 
16.8 
8. 

13.1 

12.2 

11.3 

8.7 

8.3 

11.1 

11. 

9.9 

8.5 

7.7 

12.1 

11.9 

12.1 

11.5 

9.5 

8.4 


States  and  Territories. 


Mississippi  

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire. . . . 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island.    

South  Carolina.-.  . .  . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington  Ter 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming  Territory 


©■a 

i,  V 

=  r. 

sa 

"^  c3 

J3 

a  o 

S    /•    SO 

u 

ft  a 

fit 

-  —   - 

2  m 

B  >  m 

h«3 

S  1)  to 

2  tv  d 

?  2 

-2  s 

c—  « 

v"  0) 

6r> 

Q 

3h 

14,683 

1,436 

9.7 

36,615 

4,117 

11.2 

336 

28 

8.3 

5,930 

442 

7.4 

728 

55 

7.5 

5,584 

751 

13.4 

18,474 

2,941 

15.8 

2,436 

72 

2.9 

88,332 

10.129 

11.4 

21,547 

1.792 

8.3 

42,610 

5,738 

13.4 

1,864 

182 

9.7 

63,881 

8,199 

12.8 

4,702 

575 

12. -J 

15,728 

1,450 

9,2 

25,919 

2,368 

9.1 

24.735 

2,450 

9.9 

2,314 

185 

7. it 

4,024 

608 

15  1 

24,681 

2,569 

13. 

755 

61 

8. 

7,518 

742 

9.4 

15,011 

1,698 

11.3 

189 

11 

5.8 

The  statistics  of  the  hygiene  of  the  United  States  Army  for  a  series 
of  years,  comprehending  the  reports  of  the  medical  officers  stationed  at 
the  various  military  posts  throughout  the  country,  "  Circular  No.  8,v 
issued  from  the  Surgeon-General's  office  May  1st,  1875,  shows  the  follow- 


ing; 


118 


CLDIATOLOGICAL   TOPOGRAPHY   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Ratio  of  Deaths  from  Pulmonary  Diseases  per  Mean  Strength    U.   S. 

Army. 


Mean 
Strength. 


Discharges    Deaths  per 

PER  1,000  FOR        1,000  FROM 


c  C 


-    z. 

:i.  B 
0 


U.  S.  Armv,  white  troops,  1870-74..         25.989  3.828 
U.  S.  Army,  colored  troops,  1870-'74  2,530  2.962 

Arizona ] 

California 

Colorado I 

Dakota 

Kansas ] 

Minnesota | 

Montana \  564,646 

Nebraska j 

New  Mexico 

Oregon j 

Texas | 

Utah 


«S 


LOSS  PER 
1,000   FROM 


.2  '       <W 


o  h 


Washington 

Wyoming 

United  States 5,804,616 


J 


1.395  1.462  1.462 
.296  2.47    3.162 


1.735    .953 


2.486 


.788 


5.29    2.867 
5.432  3.458 


1.735 


2.486 


.953 


.788 


TABLE. 


Ratio  of  Diseases  and  Deaths  from  Consumption  to  Total  Xumber  of 
Diseases  and  Deaths  from  all  Causes  at  Military  Posts  of  the  United 
States  Army,  1870-1874.     Abstract  of  Circular  No.  8. 


Military  Posts. 

3 

s 

CD 

-*3 

a 

■3 

•r. 

s 

a> 

■r 
o 

p. 

S 

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o 
o 

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0-  (j) 

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31 

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=  § 

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=  — 

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p 

00     . 

—  = 

-  z 
C  '— 

Northern  Coast. 
Ft.  Columbus,  N.  Y 

51.53 

in. 
46  69 

2,184 

4,618 

17 

.0036 

68 

6 

.0882 

47.95  37.84 

1,020  l,514j     3  .0019,  9 

1    .1111 

Ft.  Independence,  Mass 

46.46  40.78 

227     537      7  .0130 

1 

0    .0000 

Ft.  Preble,  Me.     a 

.... 

46.1030.69 

170      72     2.0279 

B 

0 

.uuuo 

50.51 

39.01 

3,601 

6,741 

29 

.0043 

81 

17 
1 

.0864 

(  I.IM  VTOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPHY    OF    THE    UNITDD    BTATES. 


119 


Military  Posts. 


Southern  and  Gulf  Coasts. 

Ft.  Monroe,  Va 

Charleston,  S.  C.     b 

Kev  West  Barracks,  Fla.     c. 
Ft.'Brown,  Tex 


Average 


Northern  Interior. 

AVest  Point,  N.  Y    d 

Platteburgh,  N.  Y 

Ft.  Snelling,  Minn 

Omaha  Barracks,  Neb.     e. 

Average 


Sea  level. 


Ft.  above 
sea-level 

157 
186 
840 
960 


Southern  Interior. 

Columbia,  S.  C.    / 

Jackson  Barracks,  La.     b... 

Ringgold,  Tex 

.Ft.  Leavenworth,  Kan.     g. 

Average 


Interior,  1,000  to  2,500  ft. 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Ft.  Hays,  Kan.     h 

Ft.  Sully,  Dakota 

Ft.  Larned,  Kan 

Camp  McDowell.  Ariz 

Ft.  Sill,  Ind.  Ter 


300 

10 

521 

v 


58.18 

78!  09 
72.41 

69.56 


.-j  1.24 
13.92 
42.93 
50.91 


47.25 


1,078 
1,893 
1,660 
1,932 
1,800 
1,700 


Average. 


Interior,  above  2,500  ft. 

Camp  Douglas?..  Utah 

Ft.  Stockton.  Tex , 

Santa  l'e.  X.  M.     i , 

Ft.  Bridger,  Wvoming.  . .  . 

Ft.  Ellis'.  Montana,    j 5.mmj 

Camp  Bidwell,  Cal ,    4,680 


4,904 
4,950 

7.010 


Average. 


74.92 


42.16  1,361  1,636 
60]  903 
14.87  372  875 
30.80     6061,332 

35.94  2,940  4,846 


39.91 
29.86 
20.51 
31.58 


1,2101,627 


283 

434 

1,573 


64* 
1,106 
2,307 


30.463,500  5,688 


64.06  53.01 


14.75 


885  1,722 
975  1,999 

448     711 


13 


23 


If 


a  - 

■-  a 


•  ?  7 
Sg  8  s 


.0097  13 

.0055   6 
.0045 
.0030   9 

.0056  36 


.0080  4 
.0060  0 
.0027  3 
.001312 


.0040  19 


51.88  57.04  1,492  2,901      6 


8  .0046  13 
0030  15 
0098  10 

002016 


63.62  41.60  3,S00  7.333    27 


62.60  63.461,1671,719 
54.25  28.02  8141,684' 
47.0116.39  876  1,302! 
52.7416.24     450     864 

70.07  11.28     698     957 

61.08  29.29  1,936  3,058 


57.95  35.78  59.41  9,584 


50.46 
64.97 

53.63 
38.58 

49.07 

51.34 


16.47  1.290  3. 
12.49  799 
14.80  200 
460 
'  . .  1,043 
15.05     241 


676 

217 
676 

703 
302 


.0036  54 


31 


13.814,033  4,202 


.0046  18 
.0053  12 
.0023 
.0011 
.0020  10 
.0026  24 


,0032  85 


.000816 

OUTS  11 

,0000  3 

.0074  3 

.0028!  5 
.0066 


—    - 

its 


a  a 


2307 
3333 
1250 
3333 

2500 


.0000 
.0000 
.0000 
.0833 

.0526 


1546 
1333 

,0000 

0625 


5    .0925 


.166 

.250 

.2500 

.0285 

.2000 

.1667 


15    .1764 


1  .0625 
1  .0999 
1  j . 3333 

0    .0000 

0  .0000 

1  .1666 


17    0040  44   4 


M 


,0909 


a.  Temp,  and  rain-fall  estimated  for  October,  1873.  b.  Temperature  and  rain- 
fall not  given.  c.  Rain-fall  estimated  for  Feb.,  1871,  and  June,  1872.  d.  Rain- 
fall estimated  for  January,  1874.  e.  Temp,  and  rain-fall  estimated  for  the  year 
ending  June  30th,  1874.  f.  Temp,  and  rain-fall  for  last  two  years  only.  g.  Rain- 
fall estimated  for  Jan.,  1871.  h.  Rain-fall  estimated  for  Jan.,  Feb.,  March,  1871. 
i.  Temperature  and  rain-fall  for  first  two  years  only.  /.  Temperature  and  rai> 
fall  imperfect  and  incomplete 


120 


MONTHLY   AND   MEAN   ACTUAL   BAROMETER. 


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138      ELEVATION    OF   SIGNAL   BAROMETERS   ABOVE   MEAN    SEA-LEVEL. 


ELEVATIONS  OF  SIGNAL  SERVICE  BAROMETERS  ABOVE  MEAN  SEA-LEVEL  ON  JUNE 
30,  1881,  AND  OF  THERMOMETERS  AND  RAIN  GAUGES  ABOVE  GROUND  (U.  S. 
SIGNAL    SERVICE). 


Station. 


Albany,  N.  Y 

Alpena,  Mich 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J 

Augusta,  Ga 

Baltimore,  Md 

Barnegat,  N.  J 

Benton,  Mont 

Bismarck,  Dak  

Boerne,  Tex 

Boise  City,  Idaho 

Boston,  Mass 

Brackettsville,  Tex 

Brownsville,  Tex 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Burlington,  Vt 

Cairo,  111 

Campo,  Cal 

Cape  Hatteras,  N.  C 

Cape  Henry,  Va 

Cape  Lookout,  N.  C 

Cape  May,  N.  J 

Castroville,  Tex , 

Cedar  Keys*  Fla. 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Charlotte,  N.  C 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 

Cheyenne,  Wyo 

Chicago,  111 

Chincoteague.  Va 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Coleman  City,  Tex  

Columbus,  Ohio 

Concho,  Tex 

Corsicana,  Tex 

Davenport,   Iowa — 

Dayton,  Wash 

Deadwood,  Dak 

Decatur,  Tex 

Delaware  Breakwater,  Del 

Denison,  Tex  

Denver,  Colo  

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

Detroit,  Mich 

Dodge  City,  Kans .  • 

Dubuque,  Iowa    

Duluth,  Minn 

Eagle  Pass,  Tex 

Eagle  Rock,  Idaho 

Eastport,  Me 

El  Paso,  Tex 

Erie,  Pa 

Escanaba,  Mich  

Florence,  Ariz... 

Fort  Apache,  Ariz 

Fort  Assinniboine,  Mont.   . . 

Fort  Bennett,  Dak 

Fort  Buford,  Dak  

Fort  Custer,  Mont 

Fort  Davis,  Tex 

Fort  Elliott,  Tex 

Fort  Gibson,  Ind.  T 

Fort  Grant,  Ariz 

Fort  Griffin,  Tex  

Fort  Keogh,  Mont 

Fort  Macon,  N.  C 

Fort  McKavett,  Tex 

Fort  Missoula,  Mont 

Fort  Shaw,  Mont 


Above  sea- 
level. 


Feet. 
75.3 
609.4 
1,131.3 
12.9 
182.8 
45.2 
20.0 


1.704.3 
1.508.0  B. 
2,768.0  B. 

142.2 
1,137.0  B. 
43.4  ? 
664.5 
268.0 
377.3 
2,527.0 
8.4 
16.0 
15.0 
27.0 
778.0  B. 
22.5 
52.5 
837.8? 
783.2 
6,089.0 
660.9 
18.5 
620.4 
689.7 
1.735.0  B. 

804.6 
1,888.0  B. 
447.5 
614.7 
1.700.0  B. 
4,630.0  B. 
1,160.0  ? 
20.0 
767.4 
5,293.6 
849.0 
661.4 
2,512.5 
665.1 
644.1 
800.0  B. 
4,780.6 
61.2 
3,956.0  B. 
681.1 
611.6 
1,553.0  B. 
5,004.0 


1,876.0  B. 
3,100.0  B. 
4,918.0  B. 


510.1 
4.737.0  B. 
1,243.0  B. 


11.0 


Above  ground. 


Therm.         Rain-gauge. 


Feet. 


50.9 
54.4 
77.7 
9.7 
18.1 
33.1 
5.5 
50.5 
16.4 
6.5 
19.3 
155.9 
6.4 
20.2 
72.0 
54.6 
44.4 
5.0 
7.0 
16.5 
18.0 
18.6 
16.0 
20.3 
40.5 
34.6 
42.6 
15.3 
69.2 
28.9 
67.8 
78.5 
4.1 
52.0 
5.6 
18.6 
46.1 
5.8 
15.7 
17.0 
12.8 
16.8 
45.3 
35.0 
61.4 
15.3 
31.9 
18.9 
5.3 
12.2 
32.5 
16.8 
31.6 
24.9 
4.9 
7.0 
4.9 
12.0 


3.2 
6.4 

19.1 
5.6 
7.0 

13.8 
8.1 
4.1 
69 


Feet. 


69.7 

52.0 

92.2 

37.2 

39.8 

69.1 

7.6 

58.0 

.5 

4.5 

32.1 

161.6 

3.5 

40.4 

67.2 

72.0 

77.6 

2.1 

1.0 

14.3 

1.0 

6.1 

8.0 

34.7 

56.6 

47.0 

59.2 

24.0 

92.0 

29.7 

76.3 

74.0 


70.0 
On  ground. 
30.0 
77.0 

1.7 
23.9 

5.0 
26.6 
28.2 
56.1 
45.3 
71.1 
29.9 
43.1 
27.7 
.1 

1.0 
55.5 
14.1 
60.6 
38.2 

3.9 
.1 


Not  up. 


17.0 


2.0 

On  ground. 
35.4 
10.0 

3.0 
37.0 

4.8 
21.1 


l.l.KVAIIo.N     09    M'.-NAL     KAKtjMIl  KH8    ABOYK     Ml    \\     -  I    \l.l\ll..       L39 

aiu.N  ok  shiNAi.  itAKoMKTKKs  AiiovK  mkan  ska-i.kvki,,  &c. — Continued. 


Kurt  Sill.  Ind.  T 

I  nil  Stevenson.  Mont 

Kurt  Verde,  Ariz 

Fredericksburg,  Tex 

Galveston,  Tex 

Grand  Haven,  Mich 

Hatteras,  N.  C 

Helena,  Mont 

Henrietta,  Tex 

Huron,  Dak  

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Indianola,  Tex 

Jacksboro,  Tex 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Keokuk,  Iowa 

Key  West,    Fla 

Kittyhawk,  N.  C 

Knuxville,  Tenn 

La  Crosse,  Wis 

La  Mesilla,  N.  Mex 

Laredo,  Tex 

Leavenworth,  Kans 

Lewiston,  Idaho 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Louisville,  Ky 

Lynehburgh,  Va 

Madison,  Wis 

Marquette,  Mich 

Mason,  Tex 

Memphis,   Tenn 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Mobile,  Ala 

Montgomery,  Ala 

Moorhead,  Minn 

Morgantown,  W.  Va 

Mount  Washington,  N.  H. 

Nashville,  Tenn 

New  Haven,  Conn 

New  London,  Conn     .     . . 

New  Orleans,  La 

Newport,  R.  I 

New  River  Inlet,  N.  C 

New  Shoreham,  R.  I 

New  York,  N.  Y 

Norfolk,  Va 

North  Platte,  Nebr.   . 

Olympia,  Wash 

Omaha,  Nebr... 

Oswego,  N.  Y 

Pensaoola,  Fla 

Philadelphia,   Pa 

Phoenix,  Ariz 

Pike's  Peak,  Colo 

Pilot  Point,  Tex 

Pioche,  Nev. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

Port  Eads,  La 

Port  Huron,  Mich 

Portland,  Me 

Portland,  Oreg 

Portsmouth,  N .  C 

Preseott.  Ariz 

Punta  Rassa,  Fla 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 

Rio  Grand  City,  Tex 

Rochester,  N.   Y 

Roseburg,  Oreg 

Sacramento,  Cal 

Saint  Louis,  Mo 

Saint  Michaels,  Alaska 

Saint  Paul.    Minn 

Saint  Vincent,  Minn 

.  Salt   Lake  City,  Utah 


Above  sea- 
level. 


Barometer. 


Feet 
1,190. 
1,784 

8,11 16 

1,748 

N 

020. 

V.I. 

4.310. 

815. 

1,300. 

753. 

■S>. 

1,133, 

43. 

CI". 

26. 

28 

98a 

708. 
4,124, 

401, 
841, 
619 
298 
350, 
530 
651 
949 
672 

1,620 
320 
697 
68, 
219, 
923 
962 

6,259 
507 
106 
46. 
52 
44. 


0B. 
0B. 
OB. 
0B. 
5 


B. 
0B. 
0? 
3 
9 

0B. 
0 
6 
9 
0 
0 
0 

0B. 
0B. 
9 

0? 
2 
1 
,0 
,5 
.2 
9 

0B. 
8 
1 
9 
0 
0 
6 

0? 
0 
4 
6 
4 
4 


27, 

164 

30, 

2,841 

36 

1,113 

304, 

29, 

52 

1,068 

14,134 

MM 

6,220 

702 

632! 
45 

67 

No  bar. 

5,3.39 

13 

323. 


4 
3 
1 
0 
0 
3 
2 
8 
4 
0B. 

o 

0 

0B. 

2 

1 

9 

4 

0 

OB. 
1 


588. 
537, 

69, 
567 

30. 

810. 

804. 

4,348, 


Above  ground. 

Therm. 

Rain-gauge. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

5.5 

2.0 

7.5 

4.5 

5.5 

8.6 

15.8 

21.0 

36.1 

51.5 

22.6 

'.'  - 

6.3 

1.0 

4.0 

3.5 

5-.'. -J 

73.5 

29.2 

B9.8 

5.8 

17.5 

37.4 

57.0 

46.9 

59.5 

42.9 

52.1 

3.9 

1.0 

72.4 

77.4 

40.0 

67.0 

17.8 

16.0 

4.2 

5.2 

34.5 

48.0 

22.5 

37.6 

25.6 

57.2 

36.6 

50.0 

89.3 

102.5 

30.5 

50.0 

32.6 

56.8 

36.4 

56.7 

16.3 

1.7 

52.8 

51.0 

105.4 

134.8 

64.5 

84.6 

33.6 

58.2 

23.3 

41.4 

10.2 

1.0 

6.0 

2.0 

34.1 

49.0 

112.4 

108.3 

28.6 

57.2 

45.3 

77.1 

19.1 

43.0 

58.0 
8.2 

22.8 

147.8 

144.9 

20.0 

52.5 

l-» 

7.5 

22.9 

38.2 

59.2 

74.6 

34.7 

62.2 

20.0 

36.2 

99.0 

95.0 

3.6 

18.7 

5.1 

1.0 

17.2 

35.6 

5.0 

22.6 

87.7 

85.6 

7.0 

20 

80.0 

G3.0 

27.7 

76.7 

44.9 

59.8 

8.1 

29.4 

10.1 

4.6 

13.8 

35.4 

20.8 

31.9 

4.9 

.0 

100.0 

96.5 

20.0 

32.8 

37.6 

54.4 

104  4 

100.0 

13.0 

.8 

32.0 

58.0 

8.8 

14.0 

52.5 

74.6 

^-xVJ       ELEVATION    OF   SIGNAL   BAROMETERS   ABOVE   MEAN    SEA-LEVEL. 
ELEVATION  OF   SIGNAL  BAROMETERS  ABOVE  MEAN  SEA-LEVEL,   &C  —  Continued. 


Station. 


San  Antonio,  Tex 

San  Diego,  Oal 

Sandusky,  Ohio 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  J 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 

Savannah,  Ga 

Shreveport,  La 

Silver  City,  N.  Mex 

Sitka,  Alaska  ...  

Smithville,  N.  C 

Socorro,  N.  Mex 

Springfield,  111 

Springfield,   Mass 

Spokane  Falls,  Wash . . . 

Stockton,   Tex 

Thatcher's  Island,  Mass 

Toledo,  Ohio 

Tuscon,  Ariz 

Umatilla,  Oregon 

Unalaska,  Alaska 

Uvalde,   Tex 

Vicksburgh,   Miss 

Virginia  City,  Mont 

Visalia,   Cal 

Washington,  D.  C 

Wickenburg,  Ariz 

Wilmington,  N.  C 

Winnemucca,   Nev 

Wood's  Holl,  Mass 

Yankton,  Dak 

Yuma,  Ariz 


Above  sea- 
level. 


Barometer. 


Feet. 
675.7 
67.1 
638.6 
27.9 
60.4 
7,046.0 
86.9 
226.8 
5,796.0  B. 
63.0 
33.7 
4,564.8 
644.0 
120.5 
1,910.0 
3,063.0  B. 
48.1 
651.2 
2,404.0 
384.0  B. 
13.4 
891.0  B. 
242.6 
5,810.0  B. 
348.1 
104.6 
1,400.0  B. 

52.0 

4,327.3 

35.0 

1,228.4 

140.8 


Above  ground. 

Therm. 

Rain-gauge. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

17.2 

32.8 

19.0 

30.5 

54.0 

66.1 

14.9 

1.0 

48.0 

75.0 

20.8 

18.5 

41.0 

57.7 

33.3 

43.8 

4.8 

1.0 

64.4 

95.6 

17.6 

35.4 

5.2 

13.4 

38.8 

60,9 

54.2 

63.6 

18.5 

5.8 

1.5 

7.0 

4.0 

63.5 

104.7 

6.3 

15.7 

7.3 

3.0 

15.3 

1.3 

3.6 

On  ground. 

32.5 

52.6 

24.2 

29.0 

22.4 

44.5 

44.1 

50.8 

4.5 

2.1 

28.0 

44.8 

7.0 

5.0 

6.1 

34.0 

19.8 

28.4 

I                    5-l 

26.0 

0 


CLIMATOLOGICAL   TOPOOBA.PH1    OF   THB    UNITED    BTATES.  IN 

i;  m:om  i.l'KK   VI-    REDUCTIONS  TO   SBA-LBVBL. 

The  hypsometric  formula  employed  for  tho  reduction  to  sea-level  of 
barometrio  readings  at  all  stations  whose  elevations  are  Less  than  L,150 
feel  is  thai  of  La  Place,  as  given  in  Appendix  I.  to  the  Instructions  in 
the  Use  of  Meteorological  Instruments,  compiled  by  Robert  II.  Scott, 
from  whose  tables,  there  given,  the  reduction  constants  have  been  ob- 
tained. 

For  stations  whoso  altitudes  are  greater  than  1,150  feet,  the  con- 
stants were  obtained  with  the  aid  of  the  following  hypsometric  for- 
mula: 

h  =  60368.75  m  (1.004455  +  0.000004698  [t  -  32])  (1  +  0.0026119  cos 
2<p)x 

e"  10091     \       5' 

1  +  0.189  p  [1  +  10  ]jlogp> 

In  this  formula,  which  has  been  obtained  in  the  course  of  an  investi- 
gation on  barometric  hypsometry  now  in  progress  in  this  office, 

h  =  difference  of  altitude  between  the  two  stations  in  English 
feet. 

m  =  a  small  factor  modifying  Boyle's  (Mariotte's)  law. 

t  =  mean  temperature  of  the  column  of  air  between  the  upper  and 
lower  stations  in  degrees  of  Fahrenheit. 

cp  =  mean  latitude  of  the  stations. 

e" 

■yj  =  ratio  of  the  vapor  tension  to  the   barometric  pressure   at  the 

upper  stations. 

b' ',  b"  =  barometric  pressure  in  inches  at  the  lower  and  upper  stations 
respectively. 

In  applying  this  formula  to  the  reduction  of  barometric  readings  to 
sea-level  we  simply  regard  log.  b'  as  the  unknown  quantity  and  substitute 
for  h  its  value  obtained  by  levelling  or  other  measurements.  The  formula 
then  becomes — 

log  b'=  log  b"-\ 

/  «  —  \ 

e"  looai    I 

60368.75m  (1.0O4455+O.0O0004698  [<-32])  (1+0.0026119  cos  2<P)\  1+0.189£7V  [1+70         ]/ 

Let  A=  60368.75  m  (1.004455  +  0.000004698  [*-32]) 
C  =  1  +  0.0026119  cos2<p 
h 

p"  10  0  9  1 

D=l+0.189t-  [1+10  ] 

Or 

Then  log  b'=  log  b"+  h.  t'o'K* 

Manuscript  tables  have  been  computed  for  the  factors  ~  -~  an^  y> 
by  which  the  computation  of  log.  b ',  and  consequently  b" ,  is  greatly 


142  CLIMATOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPHY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

facilitated.     The  difference  V —  l"  gives  the  required  reduction  to  sea- 
level. 

In  the  above  formula,  it  is  assumed  that  the  value  of  t,  or  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  column  of  air  between  the  upper  and  lower  stations, 
is  known.  Any  errors  made  in  the  methods  by  which  this  is  obtained 
will  affect  the  final  results,  but  are  not  due  to  the  formula  itself,  which 
makes  no  provision  for  obtaining  the  correct  value  of  the  mean  tempera- 
ture. As  a  simple  approximation,  the  observed  monthly  mean  tempera- 
tures at  the  Signal  Service  stations  have  been  adopted  as  the  mean  tem- 
peratures of  the  column  of  air  assumed  to  exist  below  the  stations,  with 
the  exception  only  of  Mount  Washington,  for  which  the  mean  of  the 
temperatures  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  and  Portland,  Me.,  has  been  adopted 
as  the  temperature  at  sea-level,  and  the  mean  between  this  value  and  the 
observed  value  at  Mount  Washington  adopted  as  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  column  of  air. 

The  climate  of  the  United  States  is  divisible  into  three  regions:  1, 
the  Atlantic  States,  east  of  Ajapalachian  System,  or  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains; 2,  the  Mississippi  Basin,  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Bocky 
Mountains;  3,  the  Western  Highlands,  between  the-  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  Pacific;  and  4,  the  Pacific  slope. 
Prof.  Guyot  observes  : 

"Each  continent  has  on  one  side  a  large  system  of  highlands, 
plateaus,  and  mountain  chains,  which  constitutes  the  principal  feature 
of  its  structure,  and  may  be  called  its  main  axis.  On  the  other  side, 
along  the  opposite  shore,  is  found  a  similar  system,  but  diminutive  in  all 
its  dimensions,  extending  over  only  a  part  of  the  continent,  and  forming 
a  secondary  axis.  Between  the  two  a  general  depression,  or  low  plain,  fills 
the  interior.  The  direction  of  these  two  fundamental  lines  of  highlands 
is  not  parallel  but  converging,  which  gives  to  all  continents  a  form  more 
or  less  triangular. 

"A  large  swell  on  one  side,  a  smaller  converging  one  on  the  other, 
and  a  depression  between  the  two,  is  the  typical  form  of  a  continent. 
An  island,  however  large,  is  never  more  than  a  part  of  it. 

te  This  typical  structure  can  be  traced  in  all  continents,  but  in  none 
more  clearly  than  in  North  America. 

Sierra  Nevada  Rocky  Mountains.  Appalachian  Mountains. 

Pacific  Ocean.  Basin  of  Mississippi.  Atlantic  Ocean. 


Main  Axis.  Central  Depression.  Small  Axis. 

"Here  the  main  axis  is  formed  by  the  large  swell  of  the"  western 
highlands,  stretching  from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast,  without  in- 
terruption, for  4,500  miles,  steadily  growing  in  height  from  the  shores 


OLIMATOLOGIOAL   TOPOGRAPHY    OF   THE    [JOTTED   STATES.  1  Id 

of  Alaska  to  the  south  end  of  Mexico,  and  filling  from  one-third  bo  one- 
hall  <>l*  the  width  of  the  continent.  The  plateaus  contained  lid  ween  I  lii- 
border  chains  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  .Mountains  average 
full  4,000  feet,  and  reach  in  Mexico  doable  that  altitude,  the  high  p- 
of  the  mountain  ranges  reaching  from  12,000  to  15,000  feet.  The  sec- 
ondary axis  is  thi'  Appalachian  system,  extending  from  Nova  Scotia  to 
Alabama,  in  a  southwesterly  direction  for  1,500  miles.  Its  average 
width  is  hardly  one-fifth,  and  its  elevation,  plateaus,  and  peaks,  not  one- 
half  that  of  the  western  highlands;  but  still  it  determines  the  trend  of 
the  Atlantic  coast.  Between  the  two  axes,  the  lowlands  of  Brit  id  i 
America,  and  the  vast  plains  of  the  Mississippi  Basin  stretch  for  3,000 
miles  from  the  Arctic  shores  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  hardly  interrupted 
by  a  slight  central  swell  of  a  thousand  or  sixteen  hundred  feet  in  the 
region  of  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi."  ' 

To  duly  appreciate  the  climatological  influences  of  these  regions,  it  is 
necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
face throughout  are  exceedingly  diverse — comprehending  extensive 
coasts,  great  lakes,  forests,  prairies,  arid  plains,  basins,  and  mountain 
ranges. 

1  "Treatise  on  Physical  Geography,"  by  A.  Guyot,  LL.D.,  etc.  (Johnston's. 
Atlas),  p.  28. 


OHAPTEE    XV. 

CLIMATOLOGICAL   TOPOGRAPHY  AND   MINERAL  SPRINGS 
OF    THE  ATLANTIC   STATES. 

The  rise  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  begins  in  Georgia.  From  the  sea- 
coast  about  thirty  miles  inland  the  ground  is  low  and  swampy,  and  in- 
salubrious; but  at  this  distance  there  is  an  abrupt  terrace-like  rise  of 
about  seventy  feet;  this  is  followed  by  a  succession  of  similar  abrupt  ele- 
vations at  various  distances  apart,  until  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
miles  from  the  coast,  where  the  elevation  is  from  five  hundred  to  six 
hundred  feet.  And  it  is  here  that  the  foot-hills  of  the  Alleghanies  be- 
gin, in  a  series  of  ascending  ridges  and  outcropping  spurs,  which  in  the 
northern  and  northwestern  part  of  the  State  attain  an  altitude  of  2,500 
to  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Atlanta  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  1,078  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea;  latitude,  33°  54'  north;  longitude,  7°  28'  west;  in  the  midst  of  a 
healthy  region  on  the  divide  of  the  water-shed  separating  the  waters 
which  enter  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Chatahoochee  River,  here 
distant  eight  miles  from  those  which  find  the  Atlantic  through  Proctor's 
Creek,  the  South  and  Ocmulgee  Rivers.  The  Blue  Ridge  terminates 
about  fifty  miles  to  the  northeast;  and  bifurcating  from  it  westward  are 
Sweet's  Mountain,  the  Altatoona  Range,  Great  and  Little  Kenesaw  and 
Lost  Mountains.  All  this  region  and  thereabout  is  rolling  and  devoid  of 
swamps.  Its  salubrity,  however,  has  been  somewhat  impaired  by  the 
destruction  of  the  forest  which  formerly  obtained. 

The  Appalachian  or  Alleghany  system  of  mountains,  which  here  be- 
gins, consists  of  a  belt  of  several  parallel  ridges  and  valleys  from  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  wide,  extending  northward  from 
Georgia  through  the  Carolinas,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  and 
Maryland,  to  Pennsylvania.  It  is  everywhere  equally  well  watered,  and, 
naturally,  woodland  and  cultivable  throughout.  The  elevations  in 
general  are  insufficiently  continuous  to  cause  any  very  decided  contrasts 
on  the  opposite  slopes.  The  temperature  and  rain-fall  are  consequently 
nearly  equally  distributed;  the  atmosphere  is  neither  excessively  moist 
nor  excessively  dry,  and  with  various  altitudes,  from  a  few  hundred  to 
nearly  7,000  feet,  a  climate  of  remarkable  salubrity  obtains  at  all  sea- 
sons. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OK   TIIK    ATLANTIC    STATES.  1  l."> 

Moreover,  it  is  in  this  region  that  mineral  waters  <>r  value  abound. 

In  Georgia,  those  of  most  note  are  : 

The  Indian  Springs,  in  Butts  County,  a  lew  miles  from  Macon.  This 
water  is  sulphurous,  and  according  to  analysis  by  J.  0.  Colton  one  pint 
contains  : — 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbona-te  of  magnesia,    ......  1.982 

Sulphate  of  potassa,    ......  3.415 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,      ......  71.528 

Sulphate  of  lime,         ......  7.152 


84.077 
Gases.  Cubic  inches. 

Carbonic,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .1.000 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  .....  3.005 

Nitrogen,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .0.156 

The  Merriweather  Warm  Springs,  in  the  County  of  Merriweather, 
twelve  miles  from  Chipley,  in  the  Pine  Mountains.  Temperature  of 
water  95°.     By  analysis  of  Prof.  A.  Means,  one  pint  contains  : — 

Solids.  Grains. 

Oxide  of  magnesia,  .            .            .            .            .            .11.68 

Oxide  of  calcium,  ......              4.64 

Protoxide  of  iron,     .  .            .            .            .            .            .2.14 

18.46 
Gases.  Cubic  inches. 

Carbonic,       .  .  .  ,  .  ,  .  .1.11 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  ...  .  trace. 

Madison  Springs,  in  Madison  County  ;  Gordon's,  in  Murray  County  ; 
and  Rowland's,  in  Cass  County,  are  all  chalybeate  waters,  of  considerable 
repute;  and  the  last  is  also  said  to  contain  saline  matter.  There  are  no 
reliable  analyses  of  these  waters. 

In  South  Carolina,  the  face  of  the  country  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
Georgia.  From  tide  water  to  about  eighty  miles  inland,  it  is  low  and 
alluvial;  and,  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  swampy  and  insalubrious. 
But  after  this  the  land  rises  abruptly  in  successive  terraces,  alternating 
with  beautiful  valleys  and  rounded,  hills,  until  it  reaches  an  average 
altitude  of  about  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  a  climate  of 
rare  salubrity  all  the  year  round.  And  for  those  who  would  seek  a 
greater  altitude  in  the  same  latitude,  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Blue 
Eidge  Mountains,  which  run  through  the  northwest  part  of  the  State,  at- 
tain an  altitude  of  4,000  feet. 

Columbia,  at  an  altitude  of  only  300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
latitude  34°  north;  longitude  4°  4'  west,  has  always  been  a  favorite  refuge 
for  fugitives  from  Charleston  in  times  of  yellow  fever;  and  with  the  ex- 
10 


146  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 

ception  of  malarial  fevers,  due  to  removable  causes,  is  generally  healthy. 
And  Aiken,  600  feet  above  the  sea  level,  in  the  pine  forest  region,  enjoys 
a  wide  and  deserved  repute  as  a  winter  resort  for  consumptives.  The 
uplands  generally,  and  especially  the  mountain  slopes  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  State,  are  naturally  salubrious  at  all  seasons. 

Mineral  Springs  of  considerable  value  are  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  State,  chiefly  chalybeate.  Those  of  most  repute  are  in  the  Abbeville 
and  Laurens  Districts,  near  Parson's  Mountains;  some  sulphurous 
springs  also  exist  in  the  same  region:  Glenn's  Springs,  in  Spartansburg 
District,  and  Chick's,  a  few  miles  above  Greenville,  are  sulphurous. 
Glenn's,  besides  the  sulphates  of  magnesia  and  lime,  also  contain  bi- 
carbonate and  chloride  of  lime.  All  these  are  pleasantly  situated  in  the 
upland  and  mountainous  regions,  and  easy  of  access. 

The  Charleston  artesian  well  waters,  from  a  depth  of  over  2,000  feet, 
are  thermal  99°5;  and,  on  analysis  of  S.  T.  Robinson,  Jr.,  assistant  in 
the  Laboratory  for  Analytical  Chemistry  of  Prof.  C.  W.  Shepard,  one 
U.  S.  standard  gallon,  of  231  cubic  inches  and  weighing  58.438  grains, 
on  evaporation  leaves  a  residue  of  65.053727  grains,  consisting  of  the 
following  ingredients  : — 


Organic  matter  and  water  of  crystallization, 

Carbonate  of  iron, 

Sulphate  of  lime,         .... 

Sulphate  of  magnesia, 

Chloride  of  magnesium, 

Chloride  of  sodium, 

Carbonate  of  soda,       .... 

Nitrate  of  soda,       .... 

Silicate  of  soda,  .... 


1.733689 

.335028 

.442367 

.165247 

.230291 

11.390304 

47.258488 

.554260 

2.524745 


Silica, .361700 


Total,  ....      64.996119 

North  Carolina,  along  the  coast,  is  deeply  indented  by  sounds  and 
broad-mouthed  rivers,  with  low-lying  alluvial  soil  between,  in  some 
places  marshy  and  insalubrious,  but  in  others  covered  by  dense  pine  and 
cypress  forests,  almost  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  which,  in  the  interior, 
are  salubrious  notwithstanding  their  low  level  and  great  dampness. 
Of  such  are  the  Great  and  Little  Dismal  Swamps  extending  from  this 
State  into  Virginia,  embracing  an  area  of  3,000,000  acres.  Beyond  this, 
beginning  at  about  50  miles  from  the  coast,  is  a  broad  undulating  middle 
portion,  six  hundred  to  a  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  covered  with 
pitch-pine.  This  region  is  of  exceptional  healthfulness,  particularly  with 
regard  to  pulmonary  consumption.  The  pine-forest  region  gardually  rises 
into,  but  is  lost  in  Western  North  Carolina,  no  part  of  which  is  less 
than  1,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  where  the  Alleghanies 
reach  their  greatest  altitude,  and  the  loftiest  peaks  east  of  the  Mississippi 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,   OP   THE     ATLANTIC    STATES.  M7 

River.  The  range  nearest  the  ooast  is  the  Blue  Ridge,  while  the  suc- 
ceeding groups  are  known  aa  the  Black,  Smoky,  [ron,  and  CTnaka  foun- 
tains. The  lowest  points  or  gaps  in  the  Black  Mountains  are  nearly  as 
elevated  as  Mount  Washington,  while  Mount  Mitchell,  according  to  the 
measurement  <>f  Prof.  (iuy.it.  is  400  feet  higher,  or  6, 70"3  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  table  land,  or  mountain-plateau  between  the  ri<  1  lt»-^ 
consists  of  a  scries  of  well- watered  forest-covered  or  fruitful  valleys  and 
hills,  from  -.'. duo  to  .'5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  and  is  one  of 
the  most  picturesque  and  salubrious  sections  in  the  United  States.  The 
average  annual  rain-fall  in  this  region  is  about  44  inches.  In  the  tide 
water  region  it  is  from  two  to  four  inches  more.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture at  Ashville  (2,250  Ceei  above  the  level  of  the  sea)  is  48  to  50  .  At 
Raleigh,  60  ;  Wilmington,  63.1°;  Smithville,  mouth  of  Cape  Fear  River, 
64.13. 

The  mineral  springs  of  North  Carolina  of  best  repute  are  the  Warm 
and  If  if  Springs  of  Buncombe  County,  in  the  northwest  part  of  the 
State,  on  the  western  branch  of  the  French  Broad.  River — a  beautiful 
and  romantic  region  embosomed  in  lofty  mountains.  There  are  several 
Bprings,  varying  in  temperature  from  94  to  104'.  Analysis  of  the  water 
by  Professor  E.  D.  Smith  (Sill i man's  Journal,  vol.  viii.)  gives  the  fol- 
lowing results  : — 

Muriate  of  lime  and  magnesia,     .  ...        4      grains. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,  ....  6  " 

Sulphate  of  lime,     ......  14.05       " 

Insoluble  residue,  .....  2.05       " 

Loss,  .......         1  " 


Equal  to  4.66  grains  solids  in  a  pint. 


-.27.10 


Shocco  Springs,  in  TVarren  County,  nine  miles  from  AVarrington,  are 
the  saline-sulphur  class,  and  aperient  in  their  effects.  "Jones'  White 
Sulphur  and  Chalybeate  Springs"  nine  miles  distant  from  the  Shocco; 
and  Kittr ell's  Springs,  in  Granville  County,  on  the  Welden  railroad  to 
Raleigh,  half  a  mile  from  Henderson,  possess  considerable  local  reputa- 
tion for  alterative  and  tonic  effects,  but  no  analyses  have  been  furnished. 

In  the  very  heart  of  the  pine  forest  and  sandy  soil  region,  near  Manly, 
there  are  also  several  chalybeate  springs  and  one  at  least  sulphurous,  of 
evident  value,  but  no  reliable  analysis  of  these  waters  has  yet  been  made. 

In  Virginia,  the  mountainous  region  is  more  expanded;  there  is  a 
greater  variety  of  surface,  and  consequently  a  somewhat  more  varied 
climate.  The  mean  annual  temperature  in  the  State  ranges  from  60  to 
64'  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State  to  48  to  52*  in  the  valley  and 
mountains.  The  annual  range  from  the  lowest  temperature  in  winter  to 
the  highest  in  summer  is  about  86 :. 

The  following  table  represents  the  temperature  and  rain-fall  at  nine 


US 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


different  places  of  observation  in  Virginia,  compiled  from  Hotchkiss* 
Summary  and  the  Signal  Service  reports  : 


Meteorological  Data. 


>n 

!P 

C 

o*j 

a 

0 

,  -  ■- 

•'c: 

?-  » 

_-  - 

ra»; 

—  d 

JjiO 

=  = 

"Id 

S.2 

=.s 

■£  d 

■"  s 

a  > 

d  i 

Temperature. 

Mean  temperature  of  year    . . 
Highest        "  '• 

Lowest         "  " 

Range  of  annual  temperature 

of  year 

Mean  temperature  of  spring. . 
Highest        "  " 

Lowest         "  "  ..I 

Range  "  " 

Mean  temperature  of  summer 
Highest        "  "      ..I 

Lowest         "  "      .. 

Range  "  " 

Mean  temperature  of  autumn 
Highest        "  " 

Lowest         "  " 

Range  "  " 

Mean  temperature  of  winter 
Highest        "  " 

Lowest         "  " 

Range  "  " 


Rain-fall. 


§| 

IB 

o 


•- 

^' 

g 

1 

a 

I- 

i" 

e 

^ 

— 

t- 

c  . 

°« 

o 

0 

.^ 

?a 

r — 

*"*  In 

^- 

57.1    58.5!  59.5    56.8 
95     100 
9 

86 

52.4    54. 
87       96 
18     I  18 
69       78 
76.3!  78. 


S.2 

.11 
> 


s  a) 


—  o 


tad 


104 

104 

-4 

6 

108 

98 

57.1 

54.1 

96 

92 

19 

17 

77 

75 

81.2 

77.3 

55.9    57.3    53.6    56.5    53.8 
93        95        93      104       95 
8     i     9         5  -3-4 


95 

57 
38 

58.4 
90 
27 
63 

41.3 
74 
9 
65 


m. 


Annual  amount ...  33. 16 

Rain-fall  of  spring 10 .  69 

"       "    summer 7.45 

"       "    autumn 6.75 

"        "    winter 8.27 


100 
60 
40 
58. 
92 
25 
67 
44. 
78 
6 
72 


104 
60 
44 
55.3 
91 
20 
71 

44.6 
74 

-4 
78 


104 

93 

52 

57 

52 

36 

57.8 

57.8 

86 

86 

28 

27 

58 

59 

38.2 

72 


40.15  42.97  29.27 


85 
54.2 
86 
23 
63 

75.4 
93 
57 
36 

57.8 
86 
27 
59 
36.5 
69 
8 
61 


55.6 
84     I 
18 
66 
76.1 
95 
55 
40 
57.1 
82 
29 
53 

41.3 
66 
9 
57 


88 

107 

99 

51.3 

54.8 

51 

84 

92 

85 

14 

17 

70 

75 

86 

73.7 

77.1 

71 

93 

104 

95 

56 

52 

49 

27 

52 

46 

52.8    53.5 
82       90 


.5144.74 


28 
54 
37 
69 
5 
64 


18 
72 
40. 
74 

77 


50.9 

82 

18 

64 

35.6 

62 

-4 
66 


41.99  48.58  35.10 


11.35  14.81  7.81  13.90 11.62 12.15  12.77    8.95 

12.60-  8.80  7.3213.9014.30'  8.78!  8. 2811.05 

6.80    8.52  8.681  9.51    9.1611.49  15.25    7.08 

9. 40110.84  5.46lll.20    9.661  9.5712.23    8.02 


From  Old  Point  Comfort,  Virginia,  Surgeons  G.  E.  Cooper  and  I.  E. 
Simmons,  U.  S.  Army,  on  four  years'  observation  at  Fort  Monroe  '  re- 
port the  climate  of  this  place  comparatively  mild.  The  winters  are  open 
and  the  thermometer,  except  in  extremely  rare  instances,  does  not  fall 
below  12°  F.  The  duration  of  the  cold  period  seldom  passes  seventy- 
two  hours,  when  the  cold  snap  gives  way  and  tne  mercury  indicates  an 


1  ''Report  on  the  Hygiene  of  the  U.  S.  Army."    Circular  No.  8,  p.  51. 


TOFOGB  \i'in  .    i  i«  ..    O]      i  BE    All. ami.     .- i  \  i  SB.  I  l'» 

increase  of  temperature.  The  cold,  however,  is  fell  more  perceptibly 
than  in  those  regions  vehere  it  is  continuous,  and  the  Bystem  is  far  more 
susceptible  to  the  influence  of  a  decrease  of  temperature  than  it  is  in  the 

more  nor!  hern  lat  itudes.  .  .  . 

••  The  prevailing  winds  of  Bpringand  summer  are  southeast  and  south- 
west; those  of  fall  and  winter  east,  northeast,  and  northwest.  The 
easterly  winds  are    the    most   severe  in    February  and    March,  and    with 

them  come  diseases  of  the  throat  and  lungs  to  both  adults  and  infant-. 
With  the  latter,  croup  is  most  common  in  February  and  early  March, 

when  the  winds,  chilled  by  the  icebergs  on  the  banks,  continue  blowing 
from  the  northeast  for  several  successive  days.  .  . 

"Prior  to  the  war  of  secession,  there  was  but  little,  if  any,  malarial 
disease,  originating  at  Old  Point  Comfort  proper,  met  with;  and  Fort 
.Monroe  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  few  places  in  the  tidal-water  region 
of  Virginia  exempt  from  its  influence.  So  highly  was  the  sanitary  con- 
dition regarded,  that  it  became  the  great  watering-place  of  the  southern 
states.  Pleasu re-seekers  in  great  numbers  congregated  here  during 
the  summer  months  to  enjoy  the  salt-water  bathing;  and  many  invalids, 
who  had  been  suffering  from  the  effects  of  malarial  cachexia,  came  to 
Old  Point  Comfort  to  recuperate  their  health  by  the  tonic  sea-breezes, 
and  at  the  same  time  remove  themselves  from  the  depressing  influences 
of  the  fever  poison  to  which,  at  their  homes,  they  had  been  subjected. 
Now,  however,  the  sanitary  status  has  changed,  and  malarial  disease  is 
quite  common  here.  There  is  no  doubt  of  its  being  contracted,  not  only 
on  the  point,  but  within  the  walls  of  the  fort.  Formerly  the  few  cases 
of  malarial  fever  occurred  in  men  who  had  been  on  picket-guard  at 
Mill-Creek  Bridge,  or  in  those  who,  gcing  on  leave,  would  get  drunk, 
and  sleeping  out  during  the  night,  expose  themselves  to  the  malarial 
exhalations  on  the  mainland.  To  what  this  change  is  attributable  is  not 
certain.  Two  hypotheses  are,  with  claims  of  reason,  advanced.  Before 
the  war  occurred,  the  lands  under  cultivation  were  well-drained  and  well 
cared  for.  They  had  been  worked  for  a  long  time  and  could  not  be  re- 
garded as  fresh  soil,  the  upturning  of  which  is  always  productive  of  ma- 
larial disease  in  the  southern  States;  much  of  the  country,  too,  was 
e  'vcred  with  virgin  forests  of  pine,  oak,  and  hickory,  extending  for  a 
short  distance  north  and  west  of  Mill  Creek  to  Back  River,  thus  inter- 
cepting, to  a  great  extent,  the  winds  impregnated  with  malarial  exhala- 
tions which  came  from  over  the  swamplands  in  its  vicinity.  This  Back 
River  is  the  receptacle  of  the  waters  of  many  small  streams  and  creeks 
which  head  in  the  swamp-lands,  and  find  their  way  through  it  into  Chesa- 
peake Bay  at  a  distance  of  about  a  league  to  the  north  of  the  fort.  The 
lands  proximate  to  these  creeks  are  swampy  for  the  greater  part,  the 
waters  upon  them  being  only  brackish.  These  swamps,  when  the  tides 
are  low,  and  the  rains  heavy,  as  is  often  the  case  in  late  summer  and 
early   autumn,    become   stagnant  fresh-water   marshes,  and  furnish  all 


150  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 

the  material  necessary  for  the  production  of  southern  autumnal  fevers. 
On  the  banks  of,  and  in  all  the  country  near  to  Bock  River,  malarial 
fevers  have  full  sway  during  the  greater  portion  of  the  year,  and  in  the 
autumn,  when  not  promptly  and  skilfully  treated,  are  very  destructive 
to  life,  as  in  many  cases  they  assume  the  malignant  type,  here  called 
congestive  remittent,  corresponding  to  the  disease  so  admirably  described 
by  Professor  George  B.  Wood,  in  his  work  on  the  Practice  of  Medi- 
cine, under  the  name  of  pernicious  fever.  .  .  . 

"  During  the  war,  the  greater  part  of  the  forest  to  the  northwest  of 
the  fort  was  cut  down,  thus  giving  free  scope  to  the  winds  blowing  over 
the  marshes  of  Black  River.  Much,  too,  of  the  virgin  laad  formerly  cov- 
ered by  forest  has  been  turned  up  for  cukivation.  The  cultivated  land, 
too,  which  was  lying  fallow  during  the  five  years  of  the  war,  is  once  more 
being  worked,  poorly,  it  is  true,  for  the  drains  are  all  filled  up  or 
choked,  and  the  owners,  wanting  as  they  are  in  labor  or  the  means  of 
procuring  it,  cannot  put  them  in  proper  order.  The  result  of  this  want 
of  proper  drainage  is  that  the  rains  collect  upon  the  lowlands,  to  be  re- 
moved only  by  solar  evaporation.   ... 

"  The  other  hypothesis — more  probably  the  correct  one,  so  far  as 
the  production  of  malarial  disease  inside  the  fort  is  concerned — that  large 
quantities  of  clay  and  soil  have  been  brought  into  and  around  the  fort 
for  the  purposes  of  repairing  and  filling  up  the  roads  inside  and  outside 
of  the  same,  as  well  as  for  repairing  portions  of  the  work.  This  clay 
and  soil  were  procured  and  brought  from  the  west  side  of  Mill  Creek, 
in  the  locality  where  malarial  fevers  are  most  common.  Prior  to  the 
spreading  of  this  clay  upon  the  roads,  there  were  few,  if  any,  fevers  of  a 
malarial  tvpe  originating  in  the  fort:  but  in  a  very  short  time  afterwards 
they  presented  themselves  for  medical  treatment.  Previous  to  this  the 
young  children  who  went  not  outside  of  the  walls  in  the  night  or  in  the 
early  morning,  did  not  suffer  from  malarial  disease,  but  since  then,  chil- 
dren who  seldom  go  outside  the  fort,  and  never  off  the  Point,  are  at- 
tacked with  both  remittent  and  intermittent  fever.  In  addition  to  fevers 
of  a  malarial  origin,  diarrhceas  and  dysenteries  are  frequently  met 
with,  caused  either  by  irritating  ingesta,  or  showing  symptoms  and  com- 
plications of  malarial  disease.  Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  any  disease  of 
importance  presented  for  treatment  which  does  not  in  its  course  give  indi- 
cations of  malarial  complications,  and  which  does  not  require  for  its  treat- 
ment antiperiodics  of  some  kind  or  other.  In  early  summer,  which  is 
generally  hot  and  humid,  there  is  much  derangement  of  the  hepatic  secre- 
tions, at  times  excessive,  producing  diarrhceas;  at  others  diminished, 
running  oftentimes  into  jaundice.  These  conditions,  if  not  promptly  re- 
lieved, seem  to  be  but  the  precursors  of  remittent  fevers,  more  or  less 
severe.  The  locality  is  unfavorable  to  those  affected  with  diseases  of  the 
lungs." 

The  mineral  springs   of  Virginia   and  West    Virginia  are   of  almo-t 


TOPOOBAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


L51 


every   roriety,   and   some  of  them  of  world-wide  repute;    comprising 

various  and  different  compounds  of  sulphur,  dialybeate,  simple  and 
compound;  acidulous  or  carbonated;  saline;  aluminated  chalybeate,  and 
thermal  waters. 

The  White  Sulphur  Springs  are  in  Greenbrier  county,  West  Va.,  on 
Howard's  Creek,  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  and  picturesque  valley, 
about  six  miles  from  the  Alleghany  ridge,  which  separates  the  waters 
that  flow  into  the  Chesapeake  Bay  from  those  which  flow  into  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  Mississippi  River. 

According  to  analysis  of  Prof.  AV.  B.  Eodgers,  one  pint  of  this  water 
at  62°  F.  contains — 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium,  . 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Chloride  of  calcium, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Sulphate  of  alumina, 
Protosulphate  of  iron,     . 
Earthy  phosphates, 

Iodine  (combined  with  sodium  or  magnesium), 
Organic  matter,  .... 


Grains. 
0.146 
0.441 
0.065 
0.020 
0.003 
1.169 
2.370 
9.148 
0.003 
0.019 
trace 

undetermined 
0.001 


13.394 


Cubic  inches. 

1.06 
.       0.37 

0.05 

.       0.54 


Gases. 
Carbonic  gas,       ..... 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,       .... 

Oxygen,     ...... 

Nitrogen,       ...... 

Flow  thirty  gallons  per  minute. 

Thirty-five  miles  to  the  north  of  the  White  Sulphur  are  the  famous 
Warm  Springs,  in  the  midst  of  a  region  described  as  follows  by  Prof. 
J.  L.  Cabell,  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 

"The  Hot  Springs"  and  two  other  thermal  watering-places,  long 
and  favorably  xnown  to  the  citizens  of  Virginia  as  summer  resorts, 
namely,  the  "  Warm  Springs  "  and.  the  "  Healing  Springs,"  are  in  a  nar- 
row valley  between  two  mountain  ranges  which  run  parallel  to  each 
other  from  northeast  to  southwest  in  the  County  of  Bath.  This  county 
extends  from  the  western  limits  of  Augusta  County  to  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  which  is  here  the  boundary  between  Old  and  West  Virginia. 
This  county  is  very  mountainous  and  broken,  and  is  well  watered  by  the 
Jackson  and.  the  Cow  Pasture  Rivers  and  their  numerous  tributaries. 
Shortly  beyond  the  southern  border  of  the  county,  these  two  rivers 
unite  near  Clifton  Forge,  in  Alleghany  Countv,  to  form  the  James  River. 


152  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE   ATLANTIC    STATES. 

Within  the  limits  of  the  county,  they  skirt  the  base  of  the  mountains  on 
one  or  both  sides,  but  elsewhere  considerable  tracts  of  alluvial  flats  in- 
tervene, and  these  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  most  valuable  arable 
land  of  the  county,  though  in  many  places,  not  only  the  subordinate 
valleys,  but  the  sides  of  the  mountains  for  a  considerable  distance  from 
their  base  are  susceptible  of  remunerative  tillage.  Among  these  sub- 
ordinate valleys,  that  which  derives  its  popular  name  of  "The  Warm 
Springs  Valley/'  from  the  numerous  thermal  sources  which  it  affords,  is 
much  the  most  remarkable.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  "The  Warm 
Springs  Mountain,"  which  extends  for  a  distance  of  more  than  thirty 
miles  in  a  straight  direction  and  without  a  gap,  while,  on  the  west,  the 
mountain  barrier  is  a  deeply  serrated  ridge;  the  gaps,  which  are  found 
at  short  distances  apart,  extending  quite  to  the  foot  of  the  ridge,  and 
presenting  extremely  picturesque  gorges,  barely,  in  some  places,  wide 
enough  for  the  passage  of  a  creek  and  a  narrow  road-bed  which  fre- 
quently crosses  the  winding  stream,  according  the  exigences  of  the  situ- 
ation. These  creeks,  having  watered  the  valleys  into  which  their  waters, 
descend  from  the  mountain  sides,  find  thus  a  ready  outlet  by  these  nu- 
merous gorges  into  the  larger  valley  of  Jackson  Eiver.  This  somewhat 
peculiar  topographical  feature  insures  a  perfection  of  drainage  and  of 
ventilation  not  often  attainable  in  narrow  valleys  surrounded  by  lofty 
mountains,  which  exclude  the  sun's  rays  for  a  large  part  of  the  day,  and 
oppose  insurmountable  barriers  to  the  ready  escape  of  the  waters  by 
surface  drainage. 

"  The  Hot  Springs  lie  at  the  head  of  one  of  these  intersecting  gorges, 
and  the  stream  (Cedar  Creek)  which  results  from  the  united  body  of 
their  waters  rushes  down  the  steep  declivity  of  the  gorge,  so  as  to  clear 
the  main  valley  within  a  few  feet  from  their  sources.  Through  this  west- 
ern gap  the  rays  of  the  evening  sun  brighten  the  settlement  long  after 
its  disk  has  sunk  behind  the  mountain  in  other  parts  of  the  valley. 
Twelve  or  fifteen  miles  from  the  Hot  Springs,  the  valley  terminates 
abruptly  by  merging  into  that  of  Jackson  Eiver,  but  at  an  elevation  of 
about  two  hundred  feet  above  the  latter;  and  just  here  the  Falling 
Springs  Creek,  descending  from  the  Warm  Springs  Mountain  on  the 
east,  crosses  the  road,  and  then  presents  the  picturesque  spectacle  of  an 
unbroken  fall  from  the  top  of  the  precipice  to  the  valley  beneath.  This 
miniature  cataract,  miniature  as  to  breadth  and  volume  of  water,  is  half 
as  high  again  as  that  of  Niagara,  and  was  considered  by  Mr.  Jefferson 
worthy  of  being  mentioned  and  described  in  his  "Notes  on  Virginia." 

"  The  average  elevation  of  the  valley  above  the  sea-level  may  be  stated 
to  be  about  1,600  feet,  and  that  of  the  mountain  ridge  at  least  2,500 
feet.  The  mountain  is  of  white  sandstone,  but  the  rocks  of  the  valley 
are  chiefly  limestone,  and  the  calcareous  soil  abounds  in  caverns.  The 
springs  for  the  most  part  contain  a  notable  amount  of  carbonate  and  a 
small  quantity  of  sulphate  of  lime;  but  those  which  issue  from  the  moun- 


["OPOGBAPHY,    ETC.,   OP  THE     ATLANTIC    3TATE8.  L53 

tain  sides  a  shorl  distance  above  their  base  bave  no  calcareous  matter, 
or  -.)  little  as  not  to  be  Bensibly  affected  by  the  ammonium  oxalate  < 
Their  water  is  inn-fan:!  sparkling,  and  it,  has  accordingly  been  utilized 
for  drinking  and  cooking  purposes  as  a  substitute  for  the  more  highly  min- 
eralized water  of  the  valley.  Similar  arrangements  for  the  water-supply 
exisl  at  the  Warm  Springs,  live  miles  north,  and  at  the  Qealing  Spri] 
three  miles  south  of  the  Hot  Springs. 

••(apt..!.  A.  August,  the  intelligent  manager  of  the  Hot  Springs,  in- 
forms me  that   the  temperature  on  the  three  lml test  days  of  the  last 

slimmer  \va>  as  follows: 

July  istli.  is?."i.  at  6  a.m.,  78"  F.;  at  12  M..  sj  ;  at  G  p.m.,  85°. 

An-.  L8tli, 703  F.;  "      "       76  •  "       "         72°. 

Sept.    4th,    "      "       "        70°  F.;"      "       77;"       "         74°. 

"The  mean  temperature  for  the  three  summer  months  registered  at 
the  three  specified  hours  was  6G\  After  nine  o'clock  at  night,  or  often 
earlier,  there  is  a  depression  of  several  degrees,  but  no  record  has  been 
kept  of  the  minimum  night  temperature.  More  frequently  than  other- 
wise, blankets  are  required,  even  by  persons  in  strong  health. 

"  Dr.  B.  F.  Hopkins,  who  has  practised  medicine  in  this  valley  for 
twelve  years,  reports  that  no  epidemics  have  occurred  in  all  that  time. 
There  is  absolutely  no  malaria.  He  treated  a  few  sporadic  cases  of 
typhoid  fever;  and  in  cold  and  damp  weather  in  early  spring  those  who 
expose  themselves  carelessly  may  contract  pneumonia  or  pleurisy,  but 
even  these  diseases  are  not  common,  and  the  doctor  would  not  make  his 
living,  although  his  practice  ranges  over  a  length  of  fifty  miles,  if  it 
Avere  not  for  the  obstetrical  cases. 

"  The  frosts  of  the  latter  part  of  September  generally  cause  a  sudden 
emigration  of  the  visitors,  only  to  encounter  the  as  yet  unabated  heat, 
and  the  malaria  of  the  lower  country.  Moreover,  they  lose  some  of  the 
greatest  attractions  of  mountain  climate  and  scenery.  The  nights  and 
early  mornings  are  sharply  cold,  but  are  made  highly  enjoyable  by  blan- 
kets for  the  bed  and  by  wood  fire  in  open  chimneys,  while  the  outdoor 
temperature  before  and  after  noon  is  inexpressibly  delicious.  Add  to 
this  the  exquisite  beauty  of  the  forests,  whose  foliage  does  not  fall  into 
the  sere  and  yellow  leaf,  as  occurs  in  the  lowlands,  but  with  the  first  early 
frosts  presents  infinite  varieties  and  shades  of  bright  colors,  which  cause 
the  mountain  sides  to  resemble  the  most  beautiful  of  flower  gardens  of  im- 
mense extent  and  colossal  size;  and  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  health- 
seekers,  who  are  also  lovers  of  nature,  will  find  both  profit  and  enjoyment 
in  prolonging  their  stay  until  the  first  days  of  October.  This,  I  believe, 
has  been  the  uniform  testimony  of  all  who  have  made  the  experiment."1 

1  The  Sanitarian,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  253-4. 


154 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 

Analysis  of  the  Hot  Springs.1 


One  pint  contains 

Ladies'  Boiler  Bath, 

110°  Fahr. 
Col.   Wm.    Oilman. 

Ladies'  Sulphur 

Bath,  105°  Fahr. 

Col.  Wm.  Oilman. 

Gentlemen's  Plea- 
sant Bath,7H°  Fah. 
Col.  Wm.  Oilman. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  iron  (protoxide). . 

Grains. 

0.335 
0.014 
2  168 
0.200 
0.015 
0.168 
0.128 
0.707 
0.217 
0.218 

Grains. 

0.350 
0.008 
2.055 
2.021 
0.017 
0.228 
0.126 
0.638 
0.263 
0.171 

Grains. 

0.252 
0.010 
1.185 

Chloride  of  sodium 

0.020 
0.016 

Sulphate  of  potassa 

0.071 
0.106 
0.133 
0.378 
0.086 

Total 

4.170 

3.877 

2.257 

Within  an  area  of  thirty-five  miles  are  also  the  "  Sweet/'  "  Salt/' 
"Red,"  and  "  Blue"  springs,  of  various  temperatures  and  other  proper- 
ties, some  of  them  containing  large  cpiantities  of  gas;  chalybeate  springs 
of  various  strength,  the  Rockbridge  Alum  Springs,  and  the  Salt- Sul- 
phur Iodine  Spring. 

There  are  several  alum  springs  of  various  strength  in  combination 
with  other  salts.  According  to  analysis  by  Professor  Aug.  Hayes,  given 
by  Moorman,  "  Rockbridge,  No.  1,  a  standard  gallon  at  60°  F.  con- 
tains: 

Of  bases: 


Sodium  and  soda,            . 

0.250 

Potash, 

• 

traces 

Ammonia 

.             , 

0.471 

Lime, 

.             • 

0.594 

Magnesia, 

0.368 

Alumina, 

4  420 

Protoxide  of  iron, 

1.748 

Sulphuric 

acid, 

32.626 

Carbonic 

c< 

2.623 

Organic 

a 

0.930 

Silicic 

a 

2.460 

Chlorine 

" 

0.257 

Of  acids: 


"The  changes  which  take  place  in  these  waters  by  boiling,  the  ac- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  and  salts  of  silver,  indicate  that  these  proximate 
constituents  are  combined  to  form  the  following  salts: 


Sulphate  of  lime, 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Protoxide  of  iron, 


1.439 

1.081 
3.683 


Walton's  "  Mineral  Springs  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,"  p.  317, 


TOPOOE  \l'ii  r,    ETC.,    01    THE     LTLANTIi 


L55 


Alumina, 

<  ihloride  <>f  sodium, 
Silicate  <»1'  soda, 
( hrenate  of  ammonia, 
Free  sulphuric  aoid, 

Five  carbunir  acid. 


Pure  water, 


14.764 
0.438 
8.544 
L.401 

18.789 
2.628 

46.747 
68,825.000 

58,872.000  « 


The  same  author  gives  the  following  analysis  by  Dr.   David   Stuart, 
of  Baltimore,  of  the  water  of  the  Salt  Sulphur  [odine  Spring: 


Gases. 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
Carbonic  acid, 
Oxygen,      . 
Nitrogen, 


Cubic  inches. 
19.19 
34.60 
00.62 
04.73 


SOLID   CONTENTS   OF   ONE   GALLON. 


Solids. 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Chloride  of  sodium,     . 
Chloride  of  calcium, 
Silicic  acid, 
Carbonate  of  potash, 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Iodine,  . 
Bromine, 

Sesquioxide  of  iron,    . 
Alumina, 
Phosphate  of  soda  and  lithia 

Total  solids, 


59.14 

Grains. 

20.00 

24.00 

33.00 

07.00 

00.28 

01.28 

00.56 

01.76 

02.33 

10.80 

68.00 

00.93 

00.65 

01.06 

00.18 

00.73 

172.48 


Specific  gravity  1002.7;  reaction  alkaline;  temperature,  G4.75°  to 
'65.50°. 

The  Bath  or  Berkley  Warm  Springs,  in  the  town  of  Bath,  Morgan 
County,  two  miles  and  a  half  from  Sir  John's  Depot,  on  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad,  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  west  from  Baltimore, 
and  Sltannondale  (saline  chah/beate)  Springs,  in  Jefferson  County,  in  a 


1  "  Mineral  Waters  of  the  United  States  and  Canada." 
M.D.,  etc.     P.  271-72. 


By  J.  J.  Moorman, 


156 


TOPOGRArilY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    BTATE8. 


peninsula  of  the  Shenandoah  River,  known  as  the  "  Horse  Shoe,"  are 
also  celebrated  as  among  the  best  proven  waters  of  their  kind,  and  with 
excellent  surroundings.  Such  are  among  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Virginia  springs;  but  there  are  many  others  probably  of  equally  good 
qualities,  a  catalogue  and  analysis  of  the  waters  of  which  would  alone 
fill  several  pages,  all  situated  in  a  region  no  less  remarkable  for  its  rare 
salubrity  than  for  the  great  number  and  various  qualities  of  the  mineral 
waters. 

In  the  low-lying  and  swampy  area  between  the  tide-water  and 
the  highlands,  in  some  places  a  hundred  miles  or  more  wide,  and  along 
the  shores  and  valleys  of  the  bays  and  rivers,  all  the  way  from  Georgia 
to  Xew  Jersey,  in  the  summer  and  autumn  especially  the  climate  is  in- 
salubrious, and  malarial  diseases  are  more  or  less  prevalent. 

There  are  a  number  of  seaside  and  island  resorts  along  this  region, 
however,  with  sandy  soil,  which,  in  the  summer  season,  when  the  pre- 
vailing winds  are  southerly,  are  exceptions.  Thus  situated  and  exposed, 
with  proper  local  sanitary  conditions  the  climate  approximates  an  ocean 
atmosphere  and  its  advantages. 

Moreover,  on  some  of  the  miniature  plateaus  covered  with  forest 
trees,  in  New  Jersey,  such,  for  example,  as  Schooley's  Mountain,  twelve 
hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  within  a  few  hours'  ride  from 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  climatic  advantages  obtain  superior  to 
many  which  are  sought  at  thousands  of  miles  more  distant. 

Schooley's  Mountain  Spring,  in  Morris  County,  X.  J.,  is  of  old  and 
good  repute  "  as  a  pure  carbonated  chalybeate."  It  is  situated  in  the 
midst  of  a  very  salubrious  region,  eleven  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  two  and  a  half  miles  by  stage  from  Sackett's  Town,  on  the  Dela- 
ware and  Lackawanna  Railroad,  fifty  miles  from  Xew  York. 

One  pint  contains  (C.  Mclntire,  Jr.): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  manganese, 
Carbonate  of  sodium,    . 
Carbonate  of  lime, . 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Alumina, 
Ammonia, 
Silicic  acid,  . 
Chloride  of  sodium, 


Grains 

0.072 

.      0.200 

0.072 

trace 

0.054 

.      0.178 

0.210 

.      0.018 

trace 

.       0.092 

0.054 

Total, 


0.896 


Carbonic  acid  gas  considerable,  but  not  determined.     Temperature 
50°.     Flow,  30  gallons  per  hour. 


rOPOGB  \  l-i  I  v.    in..    01     l  ii  I      \  il.  \N  II'      STATES. 


1, 


Bedford  Springs,  in  Bedford  County,  Penn.,  have  long  been  noted 
as  among  the  mosl  valuable  purgative  chalybeate  wain-,  said  to  poet 
properties  very  Bimilar  to  the  celebrated  springs  of  Franzenbad,  in 
Bohemia. 

One  pint  eontaina  (oS°  F.,  Dr.  Church): 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  lime, 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Sulphate  of  lime.    . 
Loss, 

Total, 

Gas. 
Carbonic  acid,    . 


Grains. 
0.626 
.      1.000 
1.250 

.     o.:;:.-. 

10.000 

.      1.875 

0.375 

.     15.500 
Cubic  inches. 
9.25 


Mysburg  Spring,  Gettysburg,  Adams  County,  Pa.,  has  attracted 
considerable  attention  in  recent  years  as  an  alkaline  calcic  or  "  Kataly- 
sine"  water.  According  to  analysis  by  Prof.  F.  A.  Genth,  one  pint 
•contains: 


Solids. 

Grains 

Carbonate  of  soda,         ...... 

0  027 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,      ..... 

0.041 

Carbonate  of  iron,         ...... 

0.003 

Carbonate  of  manganese,  ..... 

0.001 

Carbonate  of  lime,        ...... 

0.627 

Chloride  of  sodium,            ..... 

0.082 

Chloride  of  lithium,       ...... 

trace 

Sulphate  of  potassa,           ..... 

0.026 

Sulphate  of  soda,           ...... 

0  308 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,        ..... 

0.847 

Sulphate  of  lime,           ...... 

0.104 

Phosphate  of  lime,              ..... 

0.001 

Fluoride  of  calcium,     .             ..... 

0.001 

Borate  of  magnesia,            ..... 

0.004 

Silicic  acid,         ....... 

0.254 

Organic  matter  with  trace  of  nitric  acid,  etc., 

0.088 

Impurities  suspended  in  the  water,  like  clay,  etc., 

0.138 

Total.             ....... 

i    n A r\ i f i nn      tropfw   nf  dorlinnofo  r\f    rx-innov     onlnhnfn   nf    . 

2.554 

ifrnntin 

bonate  of  nickel,  carbonate  of  cobalt,  and  sulphate  of  baryta. 

The  Minnequa  Springs,  in  Bradford  County,  Pa.,  on  the  Northern 
Central  Railroad,  thirty-six  miles  south  of  Elmira,  and  Carlisle  Springs, 
Cumberland  County,  Pa.,  are  sulphur  waters.  Cresson  Springs,  at 
Cresson,  in  Cambria  County,  a  station  on  the  Pennsylvania  Central 


158  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 

Railroad;  Fayette  Springs,  in  Fayette  County;  and  Blassburg  Springs, 
are  chalybeate,  delightfully  situated  in  the  Laurel  Mountains,  among 
the  most  romantic  scenery  in  Pennsylvania. 

North  of  the  40th  parellel,  in  Pennsylvania,  in  the  higher  ridges  of 
the  Alleghanies,  there  is  a  more  considerable  increase  of  the  rain-fall 
than  on  the  plains,  as  compared  with  the  more  southern  portion  of  the 
range;  and  there  are  two  or  three  considerable  areas  or  plateaus  from 
twelve  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  level,  with  a  slight 
increase  of  humidity;  but  in  these  localities,  as  in  those  further  south, 
the  surface  conditions  are  such  as  to  exercise  but  little  or  no  influence  on 
the  temperature.  It  is  less  only  in  proportion  to  altitude,  one  degree 
for  about  every  four  hundred  feet. 

Further  north,  in  New  York,  Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire,  the 
altitude  again  increases,  but  with  less  characteristic  ridges  and  valleys. 
There  are  several  groups  of  mountains,  and  small  plateaus  of  from  fif- 
teen hundred  to  two  thousand  feet  elevation,  and  especially  in  the  Adi- 
rondack^, notable  for  their  equability  of  temperature,  characteristic  of 
forest  regions,  and  of  good  repute  as  an  all-the-year-round  resort  for 
consumptives. 

Some  of  the  summits  of  the  Adirondacks,  and  even  of  the  more  ele- 
vated peaks  of  the  Catskills,  at  some  seasons,  are  obscured  by  clouds, 
and  have  more  cloudy  weather  than  the  table  lands  below;  but  the  differ- 
ence in  the  amount  of  actual  precipitation,  so  far  as  it  has  been  mea 
sured,  is  too  slight  for  any  observable  effect  upon  the  salubrity  of  the 
atmosphere.  It  is  probably  more  apparent  than  real,  on  account  of  the 
snowfall  in,  and  the  conservative  effects  of,  the  forests  as  compared  with 
the  rain-fall  over  less  sheltered  areas. 

Mount  Washington,  6,800  feet  elevation,  is  exceptional.  Violent 
gusts  of  wind,  hail,  or  snow,  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence  at  its  sum- 
mit, even  in  summer;  while  the  atmosphere  4,000  feet  below  is  clear  and 
equable.  And  Mount  Marcy,  in  the  Adirondacks,  5,370  feet  altitude, 
is  more  or  less  subject  to  the  same  conditions. 

The  atmosphere  of  the  valleys  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake  Champlain 
is  said  to  be,  by  some  persons  who  profess  to  be  capable  of  judging  by 
their  sensations,  dryer  than  that  of  the  adjacent  highlands.  But  there 
are  no  records  to  prove  it.  And  it  is  altogether  probable  that,  in  the 
summer  season  especially,  when  the  alleged  difference  is  said  to  be  the 
most  marked,  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  lakes  imparts 
an  amount  of  humidity  to  the  atmosphere  thereabouts  which  fully  com- 
pensates for  any  apparent  deficiency  from  rain-fall. 

Next  to  Virginia,  New  York  is  more  distinguished  for  the  number 
and  variety  of  mineral  springs  than  any  State  in  the  Union.  Moreover, 
the  chief  of  them  are  in  one  group — the  Saratoga — as  in  Virginia,  ex- 
cept that  the  area  is  much  less  extensive. 

Saratoga  Springs  are  in  Saratoga  County,  N.  Y.,  thirty-seven  miles 


rOPOOKAPHTj    BTO.j    OF   THE    A.TLA2TTIG    BTATB8. 


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160 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


north  of  Albany,  via  Rensselaer  and  Saratoga  Railroad.  From  the  north, 
by  the  way  of  Lake  Champlain  and  railroad  from  Whitehall  to  Saratoga, 
forty-one  miles.  The  hotels  and  other  appointments  at  Saratoga  and 
the  Springs  are  unsurjDassed.  The  preceding  tabulated  arrangement  of 
the  analyses  of  the  waters  is  extracted  from  the  excellent  work  of  Wal- 
ton, before  cited. 

At  Ballston,  also  in  Saratoga  County,  twenty-six  miles  north  from 
Albany,  the  United  States,  Ballston  Artesian  Lithian  Well,  Franklin 
Artesian  Well,  and  Conde  Dentonian  Well  are  saline  springs  of  the  same 
general  character  as  those  of  Saratoga.  They  contain  a  large  amount  of 
carbonic  acid,  and  are  heavily  impregnated  with  chloride  of  sodium. 

Sulphurous  springs  also  abound  in  New  York,  and  several  of  them 
are  of  great  celebrity.  Some  are  in  the  region  already  referred  to — 
Saratoga  County — but  to  these  much  less  attention  has  been  given  than 
to  the  others.  Among  the  most  noted  are  Sharon,  Richfield,  Avon, 
Clifton,  Massena,  and  Chittenango.  Cherry  Valley,  Longmuirs  (Ro- 
chester), Columbia  (near  Hudson),  White  Sulphur  (Cairo,  near  Cat- 
skill,  Greene  County),  and  Dryden  (Tompkins  County),  are  also  springs 
of  considerable  local  repute  for  such  affections  as  are  commonly  benefited 
by  sulphurous  waters. 

Analysis. 

Sharon  Springs. 


One  pint  contains. 


White  Sulphur, 

48°  F. 
J.  R.  Chilton,  M.D 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  soda — 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Carbonate  of  lime • 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  magnesium 

Chloride  of  lime 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Hydrosulphuret  of  sodium  and  hy 

drosulphuret  of  calcium. 
Hydrosulphuret     of    calcium     and 

magnesium. 
Silicic  acid 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 

Atmospheric  air 

Total 


Grains. 


0.28 
.30 

'5!30* 
13.95 

0.28 


20.11 


Cubic  inches. 
*2.  " 


Red  Sulphur, 

48°  F. 
Prof.  L.  Reed. 


Grains. 

0.043 
0.051 
1.122 
0.041 
0.091 
0.008 
2.370 
12.080 


0.111 

0.056 

15.973 

Cubic  inches. 

0.57 
1.31 
0.50 

2.38 


Gardner 

Magnesia, 

48°  F. 

Prof.  L.  Reed. 


Grains. 

0.042 
0.100 
0.842 
0.154 
0.054 
0.020 
2.460 
11.687 


0.781 

0.050 

16.190 

Cubic  inches. 

0.277 
0.750 
0.375 


1.402 


TOPOOBAPHT.    ETC.,    OF   THE    ATl.A.vnr   BTATEB. 


161 


Richfield  Spring 8. 

One  pint  contains  (Prof.  Reid): 
Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime,  .... 
Chlorides  of  sodium  and  magnesium, 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 

Sulphate  of  lime,  .... 

Hydrosulphate  of  magnesia  and  lime,     . 
Undetermined,  ..... 

Total,  ..... 

Gas. 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 


Grains. 
1.480 
0.870 
0.187 
8.760 
2.500 
0.250 

19.187 

28.224 
Cubic  in. 
3.  a 


Avon  Springs. 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  sodium  . . 

Chloride  of  calcium 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  magnesia. . 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Iodide  of  sodium 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 


Upper  Spring, 

51°  F. 
Prof.  Hadley. 


Grains. 

1.000 
2.300 


2.002 

1.250 

10.500 


17.500 

Cubic  inches. 

0.70 
1.50 


Lower  Spring. 
J.  B.Chilton,  M'.D. 


Grains. 
3.666 

i'.bki 

1.716 

6.201 

7.180 

Trace. 

19.814 

Cubic  inches. 

0.49 

1.25 


New  Batte  Spring 

51°  F. 

Prof.  Beck. 


Grains. 

4.370 
0.710 

"4.840 

1.010 

0.440 


10.370 
Cubic  inches. 

"!050 


The  climate  of  New  England,  as  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the 
tables  and  charts  on  other  pages,  is  severe  and  subject  to  great  ex- 
tremes; but  on  the  high  ground  of  the  interior  it  is  generally  healthy. 
The  fogs  and  easterly  winds  on  the  sea  coast  are  said  to  promote  con- 
sumption, but  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  highest  rate  of  mor- 
tality from  this  cause  is  in  Vermont,  Avhich  is  devoid  of  sea  coast. 

On  the  sea  coast  of  Maine  snow  lies  on  the  ground  from  three  and  a 
half  to  five  months  yearly,  and  in  the  interior  a  month  longer.  The 
summers  are  consequently  very  short  and  hot.  At  Brunswick,  in  fifty- 
two  years'  observation,  July  was  the  only  month  in  the  year  in  which  no 
frost  occurred. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  observed  at  Bowdoin  College,  Bruns- 
wick, for  a  series  of  fifty-two  years,  was  44.40°;  maximum,  102°;  mini- 
mum, 30n,  and  annual  range  125°. 
11 


162 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


Chittenango  Springs. 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Carbonate  of  iron 

Chloride  of  potassium. . . . 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  lithium 

Sulphate  of  soda , 

Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Sulphate  of  strontia 

Hydrosulphate  of  sodium. 
Hydrosulphate  of  calcium 

Hypophosphite  of  soda 

Alumina , 

Silica , 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen  . . , 


White  Sulphur,        Cave  Spring, 

49°  F.  49°  F. 

Prof.  C.  F.  Chand-  Prof.  C.  F.  Chand- 
ler, ler. 


Grains. 

1.631 

0.007 

0.019 

0.129 

Trace. 

0.027 

0.244 

10.177 

Trace. 

0.014 


0.010 
0.035 

12.293 

Cubic  inches. 

4.5 

0.1 


Grains. 

1.776 
0.014 
0.029 
0.196 
Trace. 

'6.'948 

13.265 
Trace. 

0.043 

0.140 

0.032 

0.027 

0.064 

16.534 

Cubic  inches. 

3.2 

0.4 


Magnesia, 
49°   F. 
Prof.  C.  F.  Chand- 
ler. 


Grains. 

1.439 
0.029 
0.041 
0.229 
Trace. 

" i ! 589 
14.835 
Trace. 

0.094 

0.116 

0.002 
Trace. 

0.072 

17.996 

Cubic  inches. 

2.3 

1.6 


New  Hampshire,  owing  to  the  general  elevation  of  the  State,  is  some- 
what colder  in  the  same  latitude  than  Maine.  The  highest  temperature 
observed  for  a  series  of  years  in  this  State  was  98°;  the  lowest  30%  and 
the  range  120°. 

In  Vermont,  the  climate  is  also  marked  by  great  extremes:  the  winters 
are  cold  and  long;  the  summers  short,  but  frequently  for  a  few  days  at  a 
time  exceedingly  hot.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  40°;  the  aver- 
age maximum,  91°;  average  minimum,  28°;  and  annual  average  range 

120°. 

Ehode  Island,  by  reason  of  a  somewhat  insular  position,  has  a  slightly 

milder  climate  than  the  adjacent  States.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
of  the  State  ranges  from  47°  to  51°.  .The  average  mean  of  Providence, 
49.94°,  and  the  average  annual  range  seldom  exceeds  100°.  Of  Newport, 
Surgeons  J.  F.  Head  and  John  Campbell,  TJ.  S.  Army,  in  their  official 
report  of  four  years'  observations  at  Fort  Adams,1  observe: 

"  The  climate  of  the  southern  part  of  this  island  is,  in  some  respects, 
an  exception  to  that  of  the  region  in  which  it  is  classed.  Its  peculiari- 
ties, which,  with  the  facilities  for  sea-bathing,  have  made  Newport  a 
summer  resort,  are  due  to  its  insular  position,  its  general  slope  toward 
the  south,  and  doubtless  to  the  nearness  of  the  western  edge  of  the  Gulf 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  5. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    BTO.,   OF  THE    ATLANTIC   STATES.  Ltf3 

Stream.  The  winter  temperature  is  much  milder  than  that  of  Provi- 
dence, and  the  summers  are  remarkably  cool  and  equable.     The  same 

cause,  however,  which  produces  these  results  occasions,  in  spring  and 
early  summer,  the  heavy  fogs  for  which  this  vicinity  is  famous.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  dampness  upon  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  is  [cs^  un- 
favorable than  might  reasonably  be  expected." 

Dr.  H.  R.  Storcr,  of  Newport,  has  also  remarked  upon  the  special 
advantages  of  Newport  as  a  "  winter  resort  for  consumptives,"  on  ac- 
count of  its  insular  position,1  He  cites  statistics  which  show  that  in  a 
summary  of  the  mortality  from  consumption  in  twenty-five  towns  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, chiefly  inland,  where  there  was  the  least  mortality,  2.25  per 
cent  of  the  inhabitants,  for  a  period  of  ten  years — 1856-65 — the  rate  in 
Newport  was  only  a  little  more  than  half  as  large,  1.53  per  cent.  And 
in  comparing  the  effects  of  the  moist  atmosphere  of  Newport  with  that 
of  soil  moisture,  he  quotes  from  a  paper  on  the  Isle  of  Shoals,  off  the 
New  Hampshire  shore,  by  Dr.  H.  I.  Bowditch,  who  states  :  (<Iam  cer- 
tain that,  in  many  cases  of  early  phthisis,  the  tonic,  clear,  soft  air  of  the 
Isles  of  Shoals  in  summer  has  been  of  immense  service.  The  winds 
Avere  violent,  but  the  temperature  was  less  severe  than  in  corresponding 
places  on  shore.  These  winds  will,  however,  always  prevent  many  from 
residing  at  the  Shoals  during  the  winter. 

"  It  may  be  objected  that,  in  suggesting  an  island,  I  virtually  ignore 
all  my  previous  statements  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  moisture  as  a 
cause  of  consumption.  I  answer,  first,  that  it  is  evident  that  a  small 
island  with  an  ocean  climate  may,  and  probably  would,  produce  very 
different  effects  on  a  patient  from  those  caused  by  a  low  and  damp  place 
on  land.  Hence  the  two  places  are  evidently  wholly  under  different  in- 
fluences. The  two  spots  are  not  analogous.  But  second,  in  the  place  I 
have  named,  I,  in  reality,  do  not  vary  from  the  rule  of  dryness  of  the 
soil,  for  they  are  either  mere  rocks  rising  out  of  the  ocean,  with  no 
marshes  near,  or  they  are  masses  of  sand,  so  to  speak,  and  are  essentially 
dry  of  character.  Hence  they  do,  in  reality,  fall  within  the  rule,  only 
they  have  the  oceanic  atmosphere  instead  of  the  land  atmosphere  encir- 
cling and  covering  them. 

"  It  is  part  of  my  medical  faith  that  within  fifty  years  our  commu- 
nity will  occupy  this  and  kindred  islands  as  places  peculiarly  fitted  for 
many  of  our  citizens,  who  prefer  to  remain  near  home  to  seeking  health 
further  south.  They  will  be  in  some  measure  to  New  England  what  the 
Isle  of  Wight  is  to  Great  Britain,  although  the  beauties  of  the  two  places 
will  be  forever  very  different,  and  the  climate  of  the  Shoals  less  gracious 
than  that  of  the  mild,  almost  tropical  airs  of  the  Undercliff,  or  that  of 


1  The  Sanitarian,  vol.  xi. 


104 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


the  island  of  Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard,  on  our  own  shores,  which 
experience  some  of  the  genial  influences  of  the  Gulf  Stream."  1 

In  Connecticut,  the  climate  is  in  no  material  respect  different  from 
the  interior  of  the  adjacent  States.  Away  from  the  sea-board  the  snow  lies 
on  the  ground  for  many  months,  and  the  winter  weather  is  intensely  cold. 

In  the  valley,  heavy  fogs  prevail  during  a  portion  of  the  summer 
and  autumn,  and  some  writers  are  wont  to  attribute  the  large  percent- 
age of  deaths  from  consumption  to  the  dampness  of  the  atmosphere  from 
this  cause,  but  there  is  no  excess  of  consumption  in  Connecticut  over  the 
other  New  England  States;  indeed,  as  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the 
table,  it  is  less  than  in  some. 

Several  contributors  to  current  sanitary  literature  make  it  appear 
that,  in  recent  years,  there  has  been  an  increase  of  malarial  fevers  in 
New  England,  particularly  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

But  the  facts  brought  out  rather  indicate  that  there  is  an  increasing 
attention  to  the  subject;  that  from  the  first,  so  far  as  any  reliable  his- 
tory of  those  diseases  in  New  England  exists,  they  have  prevailed  more 
or  less  according  to  the  number  of  the  inhabitants,  in  various  swampy 
and  soil-saturated  districts,  as  they  do  under  favorable  temperatures  in 
other  regions.  The  summers  and  autumns  being  shorter,  their  season 
of  prevalence  is  proportionately  so.  Moreover,  with  the  same  local  con- 
ditions which  promote  malarial  fevers  in  warm  weather,  phthisis  and 
other  lung  diseases  are  promoted  in  cold  weather. 

The  mineral  springs  of  New  England  most  esteemed  are,  in  Massachu- 
setts, Milford  Springs,  near  Amherst  Station,  Hillsborough  County, 
reached  via  Boston,  Lowell,  and  Concord  Railroad.  The  waters  of  these 
springs  are  mild  alkaline,  and  chalybeate. 

Analysis. 
Milford  Springs. 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  soda . . . 

Carbonate  of  iron 

Carbonate  of  lime. . . . 
Chloride  of  sodium. . . 
Sulphate  of  potassa .  . 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  iron 

Oxide  of  iron  

Phosphate  of  soda. . . 
Phosphate  of  lime. . . 

Magnesia 

Silica 

Total 


Medical  Spring. 
George  E.  Sewell. 


Grains. 


0.112 
0.225 
0.070 
0.125 


0.126 


0.658 


Chalybeate  Spr. 
George  E.  Sewell. 


Gi 


0.250 
0.260 


0.380 


0.537 
0.325 

0.125 


1.877 


Ponewah  Spring, 
J.  M.  Ordwa}'. 


Grains. 
0.027 


0.042 
0.024 

0.0U8 
0.047 

o.o  ii 


Trace. 

0.156 


0.317 


1  "  Topographical  Distribution,  etc.,  of  Consumption  in  Massachusetts,"  1862. 
p.  126-127. 


TOPOGRAPHY.    ETC.,   OF    nil;    ATLANTIC   BTATB8. 


L6S 


There  are  two  or  three  other  springs  ;it  the  same  place — one  magnesia 
— of  the  same  general  character. 

Berkshire  Soda  Spring,  near  Q-real  Harrington,  in  Berkshire  Cfoanty, 

is  said  to  contain  chlorine,  carbonic  acid,  alumina,  and  soda.  There  is 
QO  analysis. 

In  Vermont  there  is  a  considerable  variety  of  mineral  waters,  and 
some  of  them  are  of  high  repute. 

Htghgate  Springs,  in  Franklin  County,  near  Scranton,  on  the  Ver- 
mont Central  Railroad;  Newbury  Springs,  in  Orange  County,  on  Con- 
necticut  and  Passumpsic  Railroad  to  Newhurg;  and  Alburg  Springs,  in 
(I rand  Isle  County,  Alburg  Springs  Station,  on  Vermont  Central  Rail- 
road, have  long  been  known  as  valuable  sulphur  waters. 

Sheldon  Springs,  in  Franklin  County,  Missisquoi  Valley  Railroad  to 
Sheldon,  are  chalybeate. 

Middletown  Springs,  in  Rutland  County,  seven  miles  from  Poultney, 
the  nearest  railroad  station,  are  alkaline-calcic. 


ANALYSIS. 

Htghgate  Springs. 


One  pint  contains. 

Champlain  Spring, 
A.  A.  Hayes. 

T.  Sterry  Hunt. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  potassa 

Grains. 

0.459 

0.153 

0.152 

0.127 

Trace. 

0.093 

0.021 

0.004 

0.112 
0.102 

Grains. 

0.1713 
0.729 
0  175 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  potassium 

Protoxide  of  iron 

Potassa  and  boracic  acid     

Silicic  acid 

2.930 
0.306 

Total 

1 .  22:3 

5.853 

Neiobury  Springs. 

One  pint  contains  (Prof.  Hall) : 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda,  . 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime,  . 

Cbloride  of  sodium, 
Sulphate  of  soda,  . 

Sulpbate  of  magnesia, 


Grains. 
0.50 
0.30 
2.20 
0.04 
0.30 
.05 


166 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 


Phosphate  of  iron, 
Protoxide  of  iron,        , 
Nitrate  of  potassa, 
Hydrosulphate  of  soda, 
Silica  and  suspended  clay, 
Organic  matter  and  ammonia, 

Total, 


Grains. 
0.05 

trace. 
0  03 
0.04 
1.10 
003 

4.66 


Sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  undetermined. 

Alburg  Springs. 

One  pint  contains  (C.  T.  Jackson,  M.D.): 

Solids. 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Chloride  of  calcium  and  carbonate  of  lime, 
Sulphate  of  potassium  and  sulphate  of  potassa, 
Sulphate  of  soda,  .... 

Insoluble  matters, 
Organic  acid  of  the  soil  (crenic  acid)  and  loss, 


Total, 


Grains. 
1.095 
0.627 
1.601 
1.237 
0.887 
0.100 
0.250 

4.797 


Sheldon  Springs. 

One  pint  contains  (S.  Dana  Hayes): 

Solids. 
Potash,     ...... 

Sodium,         ..... 

Soda,        ...... 

Ammonia,      ..... 

Lime,        ...... 

Magnesia,      ..... 

Protoxide  of  iron,  . 

Sulphuric  acid,         .... 

Silicic  acid,         ..... 

Carbonic  acid  (combined), 
Crenic  acid  and  organic  matter, 
Chlorine,       . 


Total,       ...... 

This  water  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  very  large  proportion  of 
silicic  acid  it  holds  in  solution — "more,"  the  analyst  remarks,  "than 
any  other  on  record." 


Grains 

0.012 

0.018 

0.501 

.             traces. 

0.134 

0.020 

0.001 

0.063 

0.573 

0.264 

0,358 

0.020 

1.964 

Tol'iHJKAIMIY,    ETC.,    OF    Till;    ATLANTIC    BTATEB. 


107 


Mi <hl hi <i ir a    Springs. 
One  pint  contains  (Prof.  IVter  Collier): 


Solids. 

Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda. 

0.402 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, 

0.  L58 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

0.418 

Carbonate  of  iron, 

0.167 

Carbonate  of  manganese, 

0.147 

Chloride  of  potassium, 

0.163 

Chloride  of  sodium, 

0.027 

Sulphate  of  lime,      .... 

0.018 

Alumina,             .... 

0.010 

Total,              ..... 

1.510 

Elgin  Spring,  in  Addison  County,  a  few  miles  from  Vergennes,  is 
purgative.  Of  the  water  of  this  spring  there  is  no  reliable  analysis; 
but  its  most  active  ingredient  is  said  to  be  sulphate  of  magnesia.  The 
other  ingredients  are  carbonates  of  soda  and  lime,  sulphates  of  soda  and 
iron,  and  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Welden  Spring,  near  St.  Albans,  is  remarkable  for  containing  iodide 
of  magnesium  and  crenate  of  iron.  It  contains  besides  carbonates  of 
soda,  magnesia,  and  lime;  chloride  of  sodium,  sulphates  of  potassa  and 
lime. 

Clarendon  Spring,  in  Rutland  County,  "West  Rutland  Station,  via 
Rensselaer  and  Saratoga  Railroad,  is  of  calcic  water;  contains  in  one 
pint,  carbonate  of  lime,  0.38  grains;  muriate  of  lime,  sulphates  of  soda 
and  magnesia,  0.34  grains;  and  free  nitrogen  (for  which  it  is  remarkable) 
1.20  cubic  inches  (A.  A.  Hayes,  M.D.).  It  also  contains  a  large  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  rendering  it  acceptable  to  the  stomach. 

There  are  several  other  springs  of  local  repute,  in  various  parts  of 
the  State,  but  no  analyses  of  the  waters  exist  by  which  their  properties 
can  be  determined. 

In  New  Hampshire,  the  only  mineral  springs  which  have  attracted 
public  attention  are  the  Birch-Dale,  near  Concord,  in  Merrimac  County. 
-One  pint  of  the  water  contains  (Prof.  C.  F.  Chandler): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Sulphate  of  potassa, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 
Alumina, 


Grains. 
0.016 
0.063 
0.034 
0.182 
0.047 
0.008 
0.001 
0.014 


168  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    ATLANTIC    STATES. 

Grains. 
Silica,       ........  0.115 

Organic  matter,         ......  0.084 


Total,       ........  0.596 

In  Maine,  the  Summit  Spring,  in  Cumberland  Comity,  nine  miles 
from  Norway  Station,  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Railroad,  has  recently  been 
advertised  a  good  deal  as  a  ' '  mineral "  water  of  exceptional  purity,. 
One  pint  contains  (40°  F.,  F.  L.  Bartlett): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,        ....                         .  0.175 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,       .....  0.031 

Carbonate  of  lime,        ......  0123 

Chloride  of  sodium,             .....  0.021 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,       .....  traces 

Silica,             .......  0.122 

Organic  and  volatile  matter,                ....  0.029 

Total, 0.501 

This  water  contains  less  of  solid  constituents  than  the  Croton  of  New 
York,  or  the  average  of  river- water  supplies.  Its  properties  are  nega- 
tive. 

In  Connecticut,  Stafford  Springs,  in  Tolland  County,  have  long  been 
known,  but  they  have  never  attracted  the  attention  which  the  earliest 
description  of  them  seems  to  warrant.  In  TurnbulFs  History  of  Con- 
necticut, 1818,  is  the  following  account:  "The  springs  are  two  in 
number.  The  first  discovered  contains  iron,  held  in  solution  by  the 
carbonic  acid,  or  fixed  air,  natron  or  native  alkali,  a  small  proportion  of 
marine  salt,  iodine,  soda,  magnesia,  and  some  earthy  substances.  The 
other  is  charged  principally  with  hydrogen  gas  of  sulphur;  it  also  con- 
tains a  very  minute  portion  of  iron.  The  spring  first  discovered  is  pro- 
nounced by  chemists  to  be  one  of  the  best  chalybeate  springs  in  the 
United  States. "  Prof.  C.  IT.  Shepard,  in  his  report  of  the  "Geological 
Survey "  of  the  State,  1837,  states  that  these  springs  are  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  State. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

THE     CLIMATOLOGICAL     TOPOGRAPHY     AND     MINERAL 
SPRINGS    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 

This  is  a  vast  plain  of  1,244,000  square  miles  in  extent,  which  pos- 
sesses the  advantage  of  being  warmed  at  the  north  by  the  great  lakes,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  area  of  the  lakes  comprehends 
nearly  100,000  square  miles,  and  this  area  partakes  of  the  general  charac- 
teristics— is  indeed  an  extension  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  into  an  ascending 
slope  of  granite  hills  and  mountains  of  moderate  height  on  the  north, 
with  a  descending  gradient  all  the  way  to  the  Gulf.  Moreover,  on  each 
side  of  this  region  of  the  lakes  there  is  a  very  gradual  ascent  to  the 
highlands,  easterly  and  westerly,  as  there  is  for  the  whole  length  of  the 
basin.  The  attitude  of  the  rise,  however,  bounding  so  great  an  expanse 
between,  exercises  but  little  or  no  influence  on  the  climate.  The  warm- 
ing influence  of  the  lakes  in  the  northern  expanse,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  on  the  southern  border,  together  with  the  extensive  forests 
throughout,  abundantly  account  for  the  prevailing  high  temperature, 
greater  humidity  and  equability  of  climate  in  all  respects  in  this,  as 
compared  with  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  more  elevated  regions. 

Michigan  and  "Wisconsin  virtually  have  the  same  climate.  In  the 
eastern  peninsula  of  the  former,  there  is  a  rugged  range  of  mountainous 
hills,  whose  greatest  altitude  is  about  2,000  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and 
1,400  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  latter,  properly 
speaking,  has  no  mountains.  In  the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  an 
elevation  to  the  extreme  height  of  1,800  feet,  known  as  the  Iron  range 
of  hills,  divides  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  waters  which 
flow  into  Lake  Superior  ;  and  a  second  range  about  half  as  high,  which 
divides  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  streams  falling  into 
Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan.  There  are  besides,  in  both  States,  sev- 
eral elevations  from  two  or  three  hundred  to  about  a  thousand  feet,  but 
none  of  sufficient  altitude  to  exercise  any  material  influence  on  the 
climate,  which  is  greatly  modified  in  both  by  the  proximity  of  the  great 
lakes.  In  Michigan,  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  lower  penin- 
sula is  about  47  25',  in  the  upper,  40  40'.  In  Wisconsin,  the  mean 
annual  temperature  is,  in  the  southern  border,  about  45° ;  in  the  north- 
ern about  40°. 


170 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


The  peculiarities  of  the  climate  of  Michigan  have  recently  been  ad- 
mirably summarized  by  Dr.  Henry  B.  Baker,  Secretary  of  the  Michigan 
State  Board  of  Health,  in  a  contribution  to  "Descriptive  America," 
under  the  title  of  "  Climate  and  Health  of  Michigan,"  but  it  is  of  much 
broader  significance.     The  following  is  an  extract : 

"  The  extent  of  territory  north  and  south  is  so  great  that  there  is  a 
considerable  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  most  northern 
and  that  of  the  most  southern  part  of  the  State.  What  that  difference 
is,  and  several  other  facts,  can  be  well  shown  by 


Table  1. 

Latitude  and  Longitude,  Elevation  above  Sea  Level,  and  the  Average 
Temperature,  in  1882,  at  22  Meteorological  Stations  in  Michigan, — 
the  names  of  the  stations  being  arranged  in  order  by  latitude,  highest 
first. 


Localities  in  Order  of  Latitude. — 
Those  Farthest  North,  First. 

Latitude 
North. 

Longitude 
West  from 
Greenwich. 

Altitude 
(Approximate) 

above  Sea 
Level.— Feet. 

Average  Tem- 
perature, 
1882.   Degrees 
Fahr. 

Marquette. 

46=33' 

45°46' 

45=5' 

44°45' 

44=39' 

43=44' 

43=13' 

43=5' 

42=58' 

42=55' 

42°44' 

42°40' 

42°40' 

42°30' 

42=20' 

42°20' 

42=18' 

42=17' 

42=17' 

42=2' 

42  =  1' 

41=55' 

87=36' 

87° 14' 

83°28' 

85°40' 

83=18' 

85°28' 

83°31' 

86=18' 

82°29' 

83=12' 

84=33' 

85=17' 

83= 

84=34' 

83=2' 

85=11' 

85=35' 

83=44' 

84=58' 

85=25' 

83=57' 

84=34' 

638.07 
594.693 
587.9 
598. 

1,016. 
820. 
595.3 
600. 
975. 
900. 
750. 
746.33 

602.6 

800. 

975. 

930. 

885. 

871. 

835. 

139. 

42.28 

42.76 

42.68 

Harrisville 

45.13 
44.62 

45.63 

Thorn  ville 

47.21 
48.18 
45.78 
49.02 

49.23 

47.94 

"Washington  

47  85 

47.  N2 

Detroit  

51.20 

50.20 
48.69 
47.31 

49.58 

48.51 

Hillsdale 

48.06 
47.70 

"  The  average  temperature  for  several  stations  in  Michigan  for  the 
six  years  (1877-82),  is  stated  by  months,  in  Table  No.  2,  which  is  given 
below. 

"  The  author  of  the  article  on  l  Climate,'  in  the  latest  edition  of  the 
'  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,'  after  speaking  of  a  region  which  he  claims 
presents  more  sudden  transitions  of  climate  than  any  other  portion  of 
ihe  globe,  says  (page  6,  vol.  VI.):      'A  direct  contrast  to  this  is  offered 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,   OF   THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN.  17L 

by  the  United  States  to  the  easl  of  the  Mississippi,  a  region  character- 
ized by  a  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  distribution  of  its  rain-fall  a1  all 
seasons,  whioh,  taken  in  connection  with  its  temperature,  affords  cli- 
matic conditions  admirably  adapted  Cora  vigorous  growth  of  trees,  and 
for  the  greal  staple  products  of  agriculture.'  He  might  have  added 
that  for  similar  reasons  the  climate  rs  also  admirably  adapted  for  the 
maintenance  of  vigorous  health.  So  far  as  relates  to  the  equability  of 
the  temperature,  Michigan  is  the  most  favorably  situated  of  these  favored 
States,  beoause  of  the  great  lakes  which  nearly  surround  the  State  except 
on  its  "southern  border,  and  which  tend  to  still  further  equalize  the  tem- 
perature, by  cooling  the  air  in  summer  and  wanning  it  in  winter,  these 
being  well-known  effects  of  large  bodies  of  water.  The  modifying  effect 
on  the  summer  temperature  is  perhaps  most  noticeable  in  June,  which 
is  a  very  delightful  month  in  Michigan. 

"  The  average  daily  range  of  temperature  in  Michigan,  as  shown  by 
self-registering  thermometers,  is  shown  in  one  line  of  Table  2.  If  com- 
puted from  observations  made  only  three  times  a  day,  instead  of  contia- 
uously,  it  would  appear  much  less. 

"  The  absolute  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  now  known  to  have 
close  relations  to  healthfulness,  as  respects  quite  a  number  of  diseases; 
a  warm,  moist  atmosphere  being  favorable  to  health  so  far  as  regards 
the  lungs  and  air-passages,  and  unfavorable  to  children  and  others  lia- 
ble to  suffer  from  diarrhoea  and  diseases  of  the  bowels  and  digestive 
organs.  The  curve  in  a  diagram  representing  the  absolute  humidity  in 
Michigan  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  the  curve  representing  the  sickness 
reported  from  diarrhoea,  from  cholera  infantum,  or  from  cholera  mor- 
bus; and  as  the  quantity  of  moisture  in  the  air  is  greatly  dependent 
upon  its  temperature,  increasing  as  the  temperature  rises,  and  decreas- 
ing as  it  falls,  any  cooling  of  the  atmosphere  in  summer  by  the  great  lakes 
tends  to  lessen  the  actual  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  very  time  of 
year  when  most  beneficial,  that  is  to  say,  when  humidity  is  most  harmful; 
on  the  other  hand,  any  warming  of  the  winter  air,  by  passing  over  the 
great  lakes,  tends  to  increase  its  humidity  at  the  very  time  of  year  when 
most  needed,  that  is  to  say,  when  dryness  of  the  air  seems  to  be  most 
harmful;1  because  the  investigations  which  have  been  carried  on  in  this 
State  during  the  past  ten  years  have  proved  that  the  sickness  from  bron- 
chitis, and  from  inflammation  of  the  lungs  increases  immediately  after 
the  occurrence  of  cold,  dry  air,  and  decreases  immediately  after  the  oc- 
currence of  warm,  moist  air;  the  curves  for  these  diseases  being  some- 
what like  and  following  the  reversed  curve  for  absolute  humidity. 

1  '"The  writer  knows  very  well  that  in  England  it  is  claimed  that  it  is  the  cold. 
moist  air  which  is  most  coincident  with  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  air-passages; 
but  it  must  be  understood  that  when  those  who  have  studied  the  subject  in 
England  speak  of  humidity,  they  do  not  mean  the  actual  humidity,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  they  refer  to  the  relative  humidity  or  per  cent  of  saturation,  the  curve 
of  which  is  very  different  from  the  curve  of  absolute  humidity." 


172 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


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Toroi.K.UMlY,    KT<\,    OF   Till:    MIS8IBSIPP]    BASIN.  173 

"Although  the  relative  humidity  lias  not  been  proved  to  have 
very  close  relations  to  health,  the  facts  respecting  it  may  as  well  !»<• 
Btated,  especially  as  meteorologists  have  quite  generally  supposed  that 
it  must  have  great  influence.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  fourth  line  in 
Table  2  that  in  Michigan  the  air  is  not  more  than  three-fourths  satu- 
rated in  any  month  in  summer,  when,  as  we  now  know,  actual  humidity 
of  the  air  is  unfavorable,  and  that  the  air  is  more  than  three-fourths 
saturated  in  every  month  in  winter,  when,  as  we  now  know,  a  dry,  cold 
air  is  unfavorable  because  of  its  influence  in  causing  diseases  of  the  air- 
passages.  The  line  referred  to  is  an  average  line  for  a  period  of  years, 
and  also  an  average  for  several  stations;  it  therefore  represents  the  State 
as  a  whole.  If  we  were  to  examine  the  averages  by  months  for  each 
year,  or  for  each  station,  exceptions  would  be  found  to  the  statement 
just  made  as  to  the  per  cent  of  saturation  of  the  air  in  summer  and 
winter,  but  those  statements  are  made  with  reference  to  the  State  con- 
sidered as  a  whole." 

Michigan  is  rich  in  mineral  springs — saline,  calcic,  sulphur,  alka- 
line, chalybeate,  and  purgative. 

1.    SALINE    WATERS. 

Michigan  Congress  Spring,  Lansing. 

One  pint  contains  (53V  F.,  Dr.  Jennings): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,         ......  8.094 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,     ......  1.421 

Carbonate  of  iron,         ......  0.143 

Carbonate  of  lime,  ......  7.782 

Chloride  of  sodium,      ......  33.349 

Sulphate  of  potassa,  ......  1.554 

Sulphate  of  soda,  ......  3.131 

Silica, 0.413 


Total, 55.887 

Carbonic  acid  gas  244-  cubic  inches. 

Fruit  Port   Well,  Fruit  Port,  Ottowa  County.     One  pint  contains 
(48°  F.,  C.  G.  Wheeler): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,        ......  0.565 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,     ......  0.308 

Carbonate  of  iron,         ......  0.680 

Carbonate  of  manganese,  ....«•  0.010 

Carbonate  of  lime,        ......  0.443 

Chloride  of  potassium,       ......  0.054 

Chloride  of  sodium,       ......  58.003 

Chloride  of  magnesium,     ......  5.851 


1U 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASEST. 


Chloride  of  lime. 
Sulphate  of  soda,     . 
Bromide  of  magnesium, 
Silica  and  silicates, 
Alumina, 


Grains. 
13.888 
5. 749 
0.095 
1.325 
trace 


Total,           ...... 

.     86.971 

Spring  Lake   Well,  Spring  Lake,  Ottowa  County.     One  pint  con 

tains  (C.  G.  Wheeler): 

Solids. 

Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,         ..... 

0.005 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,     .... 

trace 

Carbonate  of  iron.          ..... 

0.092 

Carbonate  of  manganese, 

.      0.006 

Carbonate  of  lime,        ..... 

0.012 

Chloride  of  potassium,       .... 

.       0.536 

Chloride  of  sodium,      ..... 

50.691 

Chloride  of  calcium,           .... 

.       4.525 

Sulphate  of  soda,           ..... 

14.177 

Bromide  of  magnesium,    .... 

.      5.837 

Alumina,              ...... 

0.271 

Ammonia,    ....... 

.      trace 

Lithia,      ....... 

0.002 

Silica,            ....... 

trace. 

Organic  matter,             ..... 

0.063 

2.286 

Total. 


r8.503 


This  water,  and  that  of  the  Fruit  Port  Well  also,  are  said  to  resem- 
ble the  celebrated  waters  of  Kreuznach  Springs,  in  Prussia. 

Grand  Haven  Mineral  Springs,  Grand  Haven,  Ottowa  County. 
One  pint  contains  (C.  G.  Wheeler) : 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  potassa,   ......  0.343 

Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 


Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  potassium 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnpsium 
Chloride  of  calcium, 
Sulphate  of  soda,    . 
Iodide  of  magnesium, 
Bromide  of  magnesium 
Fluoride  of  calcium, 
Alumina, 
Silicic  acid, 

Total, 


0.261 
0.190 
0.010 
0.251 
0.241 

38.254 
8.941 

18.507 
8.911 
0.006 
0.022 
0.006 
0.037 
0.132 

76.112 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


L75 


.)//.  Clemens,  Macomb  County,  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Detroit, 
on  the  Chicago  and  Grand  Trunk  Railroad.  One  pint  contains  (56  I'., 
H.  F.  Meier): 


Solids. 

Grains 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,        .            .            . 

trace 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

0.497 

Chloride  of  sodium,                                          . 

1079.680 

Chloride  of  magnesium,  .            .            . 

.       16.200 

Chloride  of  calcium. 

21.552 

Sulphate  of  soda,  .... 

9.656 

Sulphate  of  lime,                                             . 

4.400 

Sulphate  of  iron,  .... 

.            .            .        trace 

Iodine,             . 

0.040 

Silica  and  alumina, 

1.121 

Organic  matter,                                              . 

trace 

Ammonia,  ..... 

trace 

Potassium  salts,         . 

trace 

Total,           ..... 

.  1133.146 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen  3.44  cubic  inches.     Carbonic  acid,  trace. 


2.    CALCIC   WATERS. 

Butterworth  Springs,  Grand  Rapids,  Kent  County. 
tains  (53°  F.,  S.  P.  Duffield): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  potassium, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Chloride  of  calcium, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Silica, 
Alumina, 
Organic  matter  and  loss, 

Total,     . 


One  pint  con- 


Grains. 
0.434 
0.432 

o.osa 

0.724 
1.227 
1.591 
5.232 
0.763 
9.392 
0.064 
0.051 
0.083 

20.081 


Hubbardston  Well,  Hubbardston,  Ionia  County.  From  Detroit  via 
Detroit  and  Milwaukee  Railroad,  to  Penamo,  thence  by  stage.  One 
pint  contains  (Prof.  P.  H.  Douglass): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 


Grains. 
0.794 
2.067 


170 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


Protoxide  of  iron. 

Silica, 


Grains. 
0.019 
0.017 


Total. 


2.879 


Eaton   Rapids    Wells,    Eaton    Rapids,   Eaton    County,    on    Grand 
Eiver  Vallev  Railroad. 


One  pint  contains. 


—  c 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  potassa  . . . 

Carbonate  of  soda 

Carbonate  of  magnesia. 

Carbonate  of  iron 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Sulphate  of  soda    

Sulphate  of  magnesia. . . 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Nitrate  of  ammonia. . . . 

Silicic  acid 

Silica 

Organic  matter  and  loss 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen. 


Grains. 


0.949 
0.248 
4.816 
0.959 


0.483 


1.639 
0.094 


— ■  2 
go 


Grains. 

0.159 
0.446 
0.480 
0.154 
2.592 
0.112 


6.016 
trace 
0.175 

6.1*19 


9.188 


11.246 


Cubic  in.    Cubic  in. 

2.32  2 

....  trace 


c    . 
5  — 


Grains. 

0.144 

0.672 
0.565 
0.125 
2.429 
0.112 


5.645 
trace 
0.317 

6.106 

10115 

Cubic  in. 

1.92 

trace 


£—. 
DQO 


0.542 
0.292 


1.311 
0.978 
5.748 


».2 
an 

•Sri 


Grains.        Grains 


0.284 
0.472 
0.622 
0.203 
3.513 
0.187 


7.187 


0.250 


8.871      I    12.718 
I 

Cubic  in.    Cubic  in. 

2  2 


3.       SULPHITE    "WATERS. 


Alpena  Well,  Alpena,  Alpena  County. 
One  pint  contains  (52'  F.,  S.  P.  Duffield): 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  potassa, 
Carbonate  of  soda,        . 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  iron,  , 

Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 

Sulphate  of  lime,     .... 
Alumina  and  silica, 


Steamboat  from  Bay  City. 


Grains, 
trace 
1.364 
4.661 
0.170 
4.787 
8.532 
3.757 
0.386 


Total, 


.     24.657 


Tol'tM.KAl'HV,    KTC,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI     IJASIN. 


177 


Gases. 
Carbonic  acid,    . 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
Nitrogen, 


Cubic  in. 
1.05 
4.42 
0.08 


4.       ALKALINE   WATERS. 

St.   Louis   Spring,   St.   Louis,    Gratiot   County,    on   railroad    from 
East  Saginaw.     One  pint  contains  (50°  F.,  S.  P.  Duffield,  M.D.): 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  lime,     .  .  .  * 

Sulphate  of  lime, 

Silicate  of  lime,       .... 
Silica,       ..... 
Organic  matter  and  loss, 

Total 22,006 

Gases:  Carbonic  acid,  1.36  cubic  inches;. sulphuretted  hydrogen,  trace. 


Grains 

.       7.684 

1.080 

.       0.091 

5.019 

.            .            .      trace 

6.955 

.       0.700 

0.299 

.       0.208 

CHALYBEATE   WATERS. 


Oivosso   Spring,  Owosso,  Shiawassee  County,  on   Detroit  and  Mil- 
waukee Railroad.     One  pint  contains: 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,     . 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chlorides  of  sodium  and  potassium, 
Silica  and  alumina, 

Total,       .... 


Grains. 
1.413 
1.443 
2.228 
0.262 
0.077 

5.423 


6.       PURGATIVE   WATERS. 

Midland  Well,  Midland,  Midland  County,  on  Flint  and  Pc-re  Mar- 
quette Eailroad.     One  pint  contains  (473  F.,  S.  P.  Duffield,  M.D.): 


Solids. 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Chloride  of  calcium, 
Sulphate  of  potassa, 
Sulphate  of  soda,      , 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Phosphate  of  alumina, 
Silica, 

12 


Grains. 
3.405 
0.228 
0.647 
8.559 
2.298 
0.464 
0.180 
0.308 


178 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI   BASIN. 


Organic  matter 
Loss, 

Total, 


Grains. 

.      0.257 

0.339 

.     16.680 


There  are  several  other  springs  of  local  repute  in  Michigan,  with 
properties  more  or  less  approximating  those  above  given. 

In  Wisconsin,  the  Bethesda  Springs,  at  Waukesha,  Waukesha 
County,  on  the  Prairie  du  Ohien  Railroad,  are  of  considerable  reputation 
for  their  calcic  properties.  One  pint  contains  (60°  P.,  Prof.  0.  F. 
Chandler): 


Solids. 

Grains 

Carbonate  of  soda, 

0.109 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, 

.      0.918 

Carbonate  of  iron, 

0.004 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

.       1.478 

Chloride  of  sodium, 

0.145 

Sulphate  of  potassa, 

.      0.057 

Sulphate  of  soda, 

0,068 

Phosphate  of  soda,              .            . 

trace 

Alumina,             .            .            .            , 

0.015 

Silica,            ..... 

.      0.092 

Organic  matter, 

0.248 

Total,            ..... 

.       3.134 

Silurian  Springs,  also  at  Waukesha,  possesses  properties  similar  to 
the  Bethesda. 

Sparta  Springs,  Sparta,  Monroe  County,  on  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  St.  Paul  Railroad,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  Chicago, 
possess  strong  chalybeate  properties,  in  conjunction  with  aperient  sul- 
phates.    One  pint  contains  (J.  M.  Hersh): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  manganese, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Carbonate  of  ammonia, 
Carbonate  of  lithia, 
Carbonate  of  strontia, 
Carbonate  of  baryta,    ■ 
Sulphate  of  potassa, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  calcium, 
Phosphate  of  soda, 
Phosphate  of  alumina, 


Grains. 
0.026 
0.503 
1.792 
trace 
0.050 
trace 
0.003 
0.002 
trace 
0.080 
0.277 
0.022 
0.018 
0.075 
0.008 
0.007 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OK   T1IK    MISSISSII'IM    BASIN. 


L79 


Iodide  of  sodium, 

Silica,  .... 

Total,       .... 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  a  trace. 


( '•  in  ins. 

trace 
0.085 

■J.^'.is 


Minnesota  has  an  average  elevation  of  about  1,275  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  varying  from  GOO  to  about  2,500.  It  has  extensive  pine 
forests,  and  a  climate  of  high  repute  for  consumptives. 

Observations  extending  over  a  period  of  thirty-five  years  record  an 
annual  mean  temperature  in  spring  and.  autumn,  45° J  summer,  703;  and 
in  winter.  16°. 

Dr.  C.  N.  Hewitt,  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  recently 
submitted  meteorological  statistics  of  tho  State  to  the  World's  Industrial 
Exposition  in  New  Orleans,  as  follows: 

"  Mean  temperature  of  all  Minnesota  beiow  47th  meridian  of  latitude, 
except  east  half  of  counties  along  Iowa  line,  40°. 

"  This  (40°)  is  also  the  summer  mean  of  the  Red  River  Valley  as  far 
north  as  Pembina. 

"  Rest  of  State,  extending  to  Rainy  River,  has  mean  temperature 
36°  F." 

This  following  table  gives  mean  annual  temperature  for  nine  years. 


1  Averages  op  Years  1875  to  1884  inclusive. 

Temperature . 

Humidity. 

1 .  1876— November,  1875,  to  November,  1876 

2.  1877—          "           1876             "              1877 

3.  1878—         "           1877              "              1878 

4.  1879—         "           1878              "              1879 

5.  1880—          "           1879              "              1880 

6.  1881—         "          1880             "             1881 

7.  1882—          "           1881              "              1882 

8.  1883—         "          1882             "             1883 

42.50 
43.73 
48.25 
43.54 
45.90 
42.02 
45.14 
39.96 

68.06 
66.67 
69.81 
67.66 
67  95 
68.51 
68.38 
71.54 

1884— January,  1884,  to  January  1885  (for  St.  Paul), 

43.78 

72.70 

43.95 

69.03 

Average  for  fourteen  years  at  St.  Paul 

45.2 

69.1 

Rain-fall  of  different  parts  of  State  is  as  follows: 


1  Stations  of  observation,  in  number  eight  to  twelve  at  different  times,  in- 
cluded the  extremes  of  the  State,  Duluth  in  N.E.,  Winona  in  S.E.,  Moorhead  in 
N.W.,  and  St.  Peter  in  S.W.,  and  several  intermediate  stations.  Taken  from  the 
State  Board  of  Health  Meteorological  Reports. 


180  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 

Big  Stone  region,  .  .  .      Average  annual,  28  inches. 

Southeast  portion,  .  .  .  "  40      " 

Head  of  Mississippi,         .  .  "  24      " 

Near  Pembina,  .  .  .  "  20      " 

For  nine  years  ending  1883,  melted  snow  and  rain-fall  by  seasons  is: 

Winter  months  ranged,  .  .  .        1.64  to    4.69  inches. 

Spring        "  "  •  6        "     9.76  " 

Summer     "  ....        9.12  "  13.89      " 

Autumn     "  "  ...  4.56  "     7.80  " 

For  St.  Paul,  during  1884,  total  rainfall  (including  snow) 

was,  ......         26.11  " 

Average  for  fourteen  years,  .  .  .  28.98  " 

Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Iowa  have  the  same  suface  characteristics  in 
general  as,  but  less  elevated  than,  Minnesota.  Diversified  by  high 
rolling  lands  and  corresponding  valleys,  Iowa  is  exceptional  in  being 
more  level,  and  with  an  average  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea  of 
only  about  850  feet.  There  is  comparatively  little  swampy  land,  how- 
ever, in  any  of  these  States.  The  climate  is  considerably  modified  by 
extensive  forests,  and  is  generally  healthy. 

Illinois  saems  to  begin,  as  it  were,  in  an  altitude  of  about  800  feet 
above  the  ssa-level  at  its  northern  and  northeastern  boundary,  and 
gradually  descends  toward  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Eivers.  There  are 
a  few  bluffs  and  hills  in  the  !N\  W.  section  of  the  State,  but  none  of 
greater  height  than  800  feet.  The  Grand  Prairie  at  its  highest  part  is 
only  500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  and  at  its  lowest  portion,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio,  it  is  only  340  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  State  is,  therefore,  very  nearly  level.  Yet, 
stretching  as  it  does  over  five  and  a  half  degrees  of  latitude,  there  is,  of 
course,  considerable  variety  in  the  climate.  In  the  northern  portion  the 
temperature  is  about  the  same  as  the  southern  portion  of  the  adjacent 
States.  For  special  data  of  meteorological  records,  the  tables  on  other 
pages  may  be  referred  to. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthy.  But  in  certain  low  and  swampy 
bottom  lands  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  intermittent  and  remit- 
tent fevers,  and  other  malarial  diseases,  are  commonly  prevalent  in  the 
summer  and  autumn.  As  may  be  seen  by  table,  the  ratio  of  deaths  from 
consumption  is  relatively  small. 

Indiana  and  Ohio  virtually  occupy  the  same  plane.  Both  are  devoid 
of  mountains.  The  table  land  of  Ohio,  the  watershed  which  divides  the 
streams  which  flow  into  Lake  Erie  from  those  which  flow  into  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  Ohio  Eiver,  is  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea  from  1,000 
to  1,400  feet.  Besides  this,  there  are  no  elevations  in  either  of  these 
States  above  700  feet.  But  the  climate  is  far  from  being  equable,  prob- 
ably due,  particularly  in  Ohio,  to  the  destruction  of  the  forests.     Sixty 


TOPOGRAPHY,    lie,   OF    mi.    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


L81 


years  ago,  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  surface  of  this  Btate  was  covered 

with  forests;  now  then' is  less  than  one-fifth,  and  the  destruction  .-till 
goes  on.  In  Indiana,  the  devastations  in  this  reaped  have  been  Less;  but 
they  are  in  rapid  progress,  with  a  continuous  increase  of  exposed 
surface  to  the  parching  rays  of  the  summer  sun,  and  to  the  blasts  of  the 
winter  winds.  The  extremes  of  temperature,  as  may  be  seen  by  rcfe- 
rence  to  the  table,  are  greal  in  both. 

The  climate  of  Kentucky  is,  in  general,  delightful.  The  Stat.-  is 
divided  into  two  unequal  areas:  the  mountain  district  in  the  eastern 
and  southeastern  portion,  and  the  southwestern  table  land,  extending 
to  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi.  In  the  former,  the  Cumberland  and 
Pine  Rivers,  which  maintain  the  general  characteristics  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  reach  an  altitude  above  the  level  of  the  sea  of  about  3,000  feet, 
tapering  off  into  a  succession  of  lower  ridges,  until  they  spend  them- 
selves in  hills  of  from  400  to  1,000  feet  over  the  latter.  Lexington, 
which  is  situated  on  the  highest  point  of  the  table  lands,  is  1,070  feet 
above  the  sea-level. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  State  is  about  55°,  and  the  ex- 
tremes, not  often  reached,  from  0  to  100\ 

In  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Iowa,  no  mineral  springs  of  importance 
have  as  yet  been  described. 

In  Illinois,  the  Perry  Springs,  in  Pike  County,  six  and  a  half  miles 
from  Griggsville,  a  station  on  the  Hannibal  and.  Naples  Eailroad;  and 
Versailles  Springs,  Versailles,  Brown  County,  a  station  on  the  Toledo, 
Wabash,  and  Western  Eailroad,  possess  valuable  alkaline  properties. 

Perry  Springs. 


One  pint  contains. 

Middle  Spring. 

H.  Engrlemann, 

M.D. 

Uppei  Spring. 

H.  Engelmann, 

M.D. 

Lower  Spring. 

H.  Engelmann, 

M.D. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  potash 

Grains.              Grains. 

0.199                  0.181 
1.260                  1.097 
0.051                   0.040 
1.380                   1.715 
0.055                  0.137 
0.330                  C.285 
0.015                  0.048 

Grains. 
0  157 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

0  777 

Carbonate  of  iron 

0  005 

Carbonate  of  lime 

1  708 

Sulphate  of  soda 

0  173 

Silicate  of  sodium 

0.431 
0.072. 

Silicate  of  alumina 

0.034 

Total 

3.29U                  3.503 

3.377 

Schuyler  County  Springs  (Chalybeate). 
One  pint  contains  (Dr.  Blaney): 


182 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE   MISSISSIPPI    BASEST. 


Solids. 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Sulphate  of  lime,     . 
Protosulphate  of  iron,  . 
Silica, 
Alkaline  sulphates, 

Total, 


Grains. 
0.373 
9.242 

8.745 
0.164 
0.979 

19.503 


Versailles  Spring*. 


One  pint  contains. 

Magnes 
G.  A.  Marriner. 

Curry  Spring. 

J.  V.   Z.    Blaney, 

M.D. 

Monitor  Spring. 

J.   V.   Z.   Blaney, 

M.D. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Grains. 
0.165 

1.119 
0.008 
1.825 
trace 
trace 

0.175 

Grains. 

trace 
0.953 
0.933 

1.514 
trace 
0.261 

0.091 
0.102 
trace 

Grains. 

trace 
0.953 
0  873 

Carbonate  of  lime 

0.267 
2  017 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Potassa 

Alumina  and  trace  of  iron 

Silica 

0  213 

Organic  matter 

Total 

3.292 

3  854 

4  323 

Carbonic  acid,  3  cubic  inches. 

In  Indiana,  there  are  several  sulphur  springs  of  considerable  value, 
and  one  chalybeate. 

West  Baden  Spring,  one  mile  distant  from  French  Lick,  is  saline  sul- 
phur.    One  pint  contains  (E.  T.  Cox): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  potassa,    . 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Chloride  of  calcium, 
Sulphate  of  potassa, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Sulphate  of  alumina, 
Oxide  of  iron,     . 
Iodides  and  bromides, 
Silicic  acid, 

Total, 


Grains. 

0.078 

0.139 

4.895 

5.172 

9.748 

1.425 

0.910 

0.175 

0.388 

4.519 

1.398 

0.569 

0.011 

traces 

0.055 

29.478 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF  THE   MTB8T8BIPP1    BASIS'. 


Gases. 
Carbonic  acid,     . 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 

Oxygen,    . 

Nitrogen, 

Total, 


Cubic  in. 
0.64 

0.61 
0.21 
0.68 

2.14 


French  Lick  Springs,  Orange  County,  Ind.,  fifteen  miles  by  stage 
from  Shoals,  a  station  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Railroad. 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  soda 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Carbonate  of  iron  and  alumina 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  potassium 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  magnesium 

Chloride  of  calcium 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Silica 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 

Total 


Pluto's  Well. 

Proserpine. 

J.  G.  Rogers,  MD. 

J.  G.  Rogers,  M.D. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

1.316 

0.198 

0.562 

trace 

0.312 

0.868 

2.536 

0.626 

17.567 

11.365 

1.006 

0.668 

2.796 

4.590 

2.264 

3.666 

7.573 

17.625 

0.212 

31.934 

43.816 

Cubic  inches. 

Cubic  inches. 

1.87 

1.277 

3.18 

2.125 

5.05 

3.402 

Indian  Springs  (saline-sulphur),  Martin  Count}',  nine  miles  from 
Shoals  station,  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Eailroad.  One  pint  contains  (53° 
P.,  E.  T.  Cox): 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  potassa,    . 
Carbonate  of  soda,  . 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  soda, 
Chloride  of  magnesium,     . 
Sulphate  of  potassa, 
Sulphate  of  soda,     . 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Sulphate  of  lime,     . 
Sulphate  of  alumina, 
Oxide  of  iron, 


(Jrains 

0.315 

.       0.452 

2.368 

.       4.138 

4.921 

.       0.007 

0.300 

.       1.478 

3.799 

.       2.529 

0.104 

trace 

184 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


Iodides  and  bromides,  . 
Silicic  acid,  . 

Total,      . 

Gases. 
Carbonic  acid. 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
Oxygen, 
Nitrogen, 

Total, 


Grains, 
trace 
0.056 

20.467 
Cubic  in. 
1.19 
0.42 
0.49 
0.81 

2.91 


Lodi  Artesian  Well,  Lodi,  Wabash  County,  on  Indianapolis  and  St. 
Louis  Eailroad,  fifty-eight  miles  west  of  Indianapolis,  is  also  said  to  be  a 
very  valuable  saline-sulphur  water. 

One  pint  contains  (Dr.  Pahle): 


Solids. 

Grains. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, 

0.082 

Carbonate  of  lime,              .... 

0.252 

Chloride  of  sodium,       .... 

62.808 

Chloride  of  magnesium,    .... 

6.692 

Chloride  of  calcium,      .... 

5.991 

Sulphate  of  potassa,            .... 

.       0.100 

Sulphate  of  soda,            .... 

0.267 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,        .... 

.       0.407 

Sulphate  of  lime,            .... 

6.944 

Phosphate  of  lime,              .... 

.       0.150 

Iodide  of  magnesium,   .... 

0.110 

Silicic  acid,  ...... 

.       0.065 

Nitrogenous  organic  matter,    . 

0.100 

Sulphur  (mechanically  suspended),         . 

.       0.625 

Total,            ...... 

.     84.593 

Gases. 

Cubic  in. 

Carbonic  acid,         ..... 

undetermined 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,           . 

0.99 

Oxygen  and  nitrogen,       .... 

undetermined 

Lafayette  Welt,  Lafayette,  Tippecanoe  County;  and  Trinity  Springs, 
Martin  County,  also  produce  excellent  saline-sulphur  waters. 

Greencastle  Springs,  Greencastle,  Putnam  County,  thirty-eight  miles, 
west  from  Indianapolis  via  railroad,  are  chalybeate. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    in..    01     mi.    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


L85 


One  pint  contains. 

North  or  I'a^Ky  Spring, 

Middle  or  Dew  Drop  Spr. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  potassa 

( Wains. 

0.011 
0.012 
0.588 
0.051 
1.819 
0.098 
0.017 
0.181 
0.020 
0.011 
0  iii2 

drains. 

ii  009 

Carbonate  of  soda 

0.008 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  sodium 

u.m: 
0.298 
1.485 

0.087 
0.012 

Alumina.    

0.129 

i'.) 

Silieic  acid 

0.001 

Loss  and  undetermined 

0.028 

Total 

2.771 

The  mineral  waters  of  Kentucky  are  chiefly  saline-sulphur  and 
purgative.  Of  the  former  kind,  the  Blue  Lick  Springs,  in  Nicholas. 
County,  have  long  been  famous  for  their  efficacy  in  liver  engorgements. 
The  Upper  Blue  Lick  Spring  contains,  in  one  pint  (G2J  F.,  I.  F.  Judre 
and  A.  Fennel): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,    ......  0.018 

Carbonate  of  lime,        ......  3.133 

Chloride  of  potassium,      ......  0.225 

Chloride  of  sodium,     ......  64.567 

Chloride  of  magnesium,    ......  4.716 

Sulphate  of  potassa,     ......  1.622 

Sulphate  of  lime,    .......  5.517 

Iodide  of  magnesium,  .....  0.019 

Bromide  of  magnesium,  ......  0.476 

Alumina:  phosphate  of  lime  and  peroxide  of  iron,  .  0.246 

Silicic  acid,  .......  0.125 

I/OSS,       ........  1.860 

Total, 82.524 

Gases.  Cub.  in. 

Carbonic  acid,       .......  6.02 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,          .....  1.02 

The  Lower  Blue  Lick  Spring  contains  the  same  constituents  as  the 
"  Upper,"  but  more  carbonic  acid,  and  possesses  similar  properties. 

The  Louisville  Artesian  Well,  located  at  the  paper  mill  of  A.  V. 
Dupont  &  Co.,  Louisville,  is  also  a  pronounced  saline-sulphur  water  of 
excellent  quality.  One  pint  contains  (7G4   F.,  Prof.  J.  Lawrence  Smith): 

Solids.  Grains. 
Carbonate  of  soda,    .                     .             .  •          .            .            .        0.237 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,          .....  0.204 

Carbonate  of  iron,     .......        0.032- 

Carbonate  of  lime,       ......  0.520 


186 


TOPOGEAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI    BASIN 


Chloride  of  potassium,     . 

Chloride  of  sodium, 

Chloride  of  magnesium,    . 

Chloride  of  aluminum, 

Chloride  of  calcium, 

Chloride  of  lithium,     . 

Sulphate  of  potassa, 

Sulphate  of  soda, 

Sulphate  of  magnesia, 

Sulphate  of  alumina,  . 

Sulphate  of  lime,   .  .  . 

Phosphate  of  soda,    . 

Iodide  of  magnesium, 

Bromide  of  magnesium, 

Silica,  .... 

Organic  matter, 

Loss,  .... 

Total,     .... 

Gases. 
Carbonate  acid, 
Sulphui-etted  hydrogen, 
Nitrogen,     .... 

Olympian  Springs,  Bath  County, 
Stirling,  on  Lexington  and  Big  Sandy 
Peter  salt-sulphur :     One  pint  contains 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,    . 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  potassium, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Bromine  and  iron, 
Alumina,     .... 
Silica,     ..... 
Water  and  loss, 

Total,      ..... 


Grains. 
0.528 

77.690 
1.847 
0.151 
8.216 
0.013 
0.403 
9.037 
9.667 
0.225 
3.679 
0,193 
0.044 
0.058 
0.111 
0.089 
1.015 

113.959 

Cubic  in. 

0.77 

0.25 

0.17 


reached  by  stage  from  Mount 
Railroad,  are  designated  by  Dr. 


Grains. 
0.904 
trace 
1.742 
1.334 

20.752 
6.924 
trace 
trace 
trace 
0.131 
9.825 

41.612 


Drennon  Springs,  Henry  County,  about  ten  miles  from  Newcastle; 
Bedford  Springs,  Trimble  County;  WJiite  Sulphur  and  Tar  Springs, 
Breckenridge  County;  Milldale  Mineral  Well,  Kenton  County;  Grayson 
Springs,  in  Grayson  County;  and  Esculapian  Springs,  Lewis  County, 
are  all  saline-sulphur  springs  of  good  local  repute  as  active  diuretics, 
diaphoretics,  and  slightly  aperient. 

Estill  Springs,  in  Estill  County,  comprehend  both  chalybeate  and 
purgative  waters.  Of  the  chalybeate  spring  one  pint  contains  (Dr. 
Peter)- 


Solids. 

Grains 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  .... 

0.883 

Carbonate  of  iron,        .... 

0.288 

Carbonate  of  linn ■,             .... 

1.159 

Chloride  of  sodium,    . 

0.068 

Sulphate  of  potassa,        .... 

0.080 

Sulphate  of  soda,        .... 

0.087 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,     .... 

1.224 

Sulphate  of  lime,         .... 

2.084 

Alumina  and  trace  of  phosphates, 

,        trace 

Silica,                ..... 

0.233 

Organic  and  volatile  matter, 

11038 

1-7 


Total,      ........ 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  4.15  cubic  inches. 

Of  the  purgative  spring,  one  pint  contains  (Dr.  Peter): 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,    .... 

Carbonate  of  iron,        ..... 

Carbonate  of  lime,  .... 

Chloride  of  sodium,     ..... 

Chloride  of  calcium,         .... 

Sulphate  of  potassa,     ..... 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,      .... 

Sulphate  of  lime,  ..... 

Silica,  ...... 

Loss,       ....... 

Total,     ....... 


6.529 


Grains. 
0.321 
0.166 
3.841 
2.201 
0.211 
0.313 

32.910 
3.987 
0.503 

10.736 

55.189 


But  the  most  celebrated  purgative  waters  of  the  State  are  the   Crab- 
Orchard  Springs,  Lincoln  County,  on  Louisville  and  Nashville  Eailroad. 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Carbonate  of  iron 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  sodium. . . . 
Sulphate  of  potassa. . . , 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  magnesia. 
Sulphate  of  lime     . . . 

Bromine 

Silica 

Loss  and  moisture 

Total  


Foley's  Spring. 

Sowder's  Springs. 

R.  Peters,  M.D. 

R.  Peters,  M.D. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

0.955 

2.734 

trace 

trace 

6.648 

3.689 

2.216 

7.290 

1.239 

2.172 

7.384 

2.900 

25.660 

21.789 

1.349 

11.146 

Trace. 

0.408 

0.153 

4.323 

50.182 


52.143 


These  waters  are  chiefly  used  for  the  production   of    Crab-Orchard 
Salts,  by  boiling  down  the  water,  of  which  thousands  of  pounds  are  sold 


188  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 

annually,  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  Epsom  salts,  than  which  they  are 
less  irritant,  and,  in  biliary  engorgements,  taken  in  small  and  repeated 
doses,  more  efficacious. 

Harrodsburg  Springs,  Mercer  County,  station  on  Southwestern  Rail- 
road, have  similar  properties  to  the  Crab-Orchard  Springs,  but  milder. 

The  climate  of  Tennessee  is  a  continuation  of  that  in  Kentucky,  with 
an  increasing  temperature  corresponding  with  latitude,  but  with  the 
advantage  of  a  greater  variety,  by  reason  of  a  considerably  more  exten- 
sive mountainous  area.  The  Alleghany  Mountains  extend  throughout 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  State,  to  the  extent  of  about  2,000  square 
miles  and  attain  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
West  of  this  continuous  elevated  region,  and  between  it  and  a  ridge  of 
the  same  system  of  mountains,  called  the  Unaka  Mountains,  and  the 
Cumberland  table-land,  is  the  valley  of  east  Tennessee.  This  extends 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  in  a  succession  of  ridges  and  valleys,  comprehend- 
ing an  area  of  9,200  square  miles,  with  an  average  altitude  of  about  1,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  bordered  on  both  sides  by  much  higher  lands.  Next, 
follows  the  Cumberland  table-land,  a  rocky  plateau  of  5,000  square  miles, 
2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  this  grades  off  into  a  terraced  de- 
scent, called  rim-lands,  which  extend  to  the  Tennessee  Eiver,  with  an 
average  elevation  of  about  1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  comprehends 
an  area  of  9,300  square  miles.  In  the  middle  of  this  region  lies  the  Cen- 
tral Basin — a  depression  of  5,455  square  miles  300  feet  below  the  ri in- 
lands; and  finally,  beyond  the  western  edge  of  the  high  lands,  is  the: 
narrow  western  valley  of  the  lower  Tennessee  and  its  smaller  affluents, 
penetrated  by  outlying  spurs,  and  corresponding  valleys  of  its  eastern 
boundary.  From  this  there  is  a  gradual  slope  toward  the  Mississippi 
River,  which  terminates  a  short  distance  from  its  bank  into  an  abrupt 
bluff  with  an  average  elevation  of  about  300  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  apparent  that  with  such  a  surface,  the  climate  of 
Tennessee  exists  in  great  variety,  and  as  a  whole  it  is  probably  unexcelled 
in  salubrity. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  year  along  the  line  moving  E.  and  W. 
through  the  State  is  in  east  Tennessee,  57°;  Middle  Tennessee,  58° : 
West  Tennessee,  59°.  Along  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State  it  is. 
respectively  in  corresponding  localities,  58°,  59°,  and  60°.  Along  the 
northern  border,  56°,  57°,  and  58°.  In  this  statement  the  valley  of  East 
Tennessee  is  not  included;  this  at  the  northern  border  has  a  mean  of 
about  55°,  and  at  the  southern,  about  58°. 

The  following  summary  from  authentic  data,  in  addition  to  general 
tables  on  previous  pages,  gives  the  average  mean  temperatures,  rain-fall, 
date  of  frosts,  and  the  prevailing  winds  at  the  several  different  localities, 
named: 


Tol'iH.KAlMlY,    ETC.,    ()K    TIIK    WI8SI88IPP1     BASIN. 


L89 


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Mkteorolooical  Data. 

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i 

Average  mean  annual  temperature. 

57.03 

57.76 

58.47 

57.26 

58.48 

61.60 

Aver,  maximum  temp,  of  the  year. 

92. 

97. 

95. 

92.90 

94.50 

101.50 

'•      minimum        "              "        .  . 

6. 

6. 

5. 

8.25 

3. 

86. 

91. 

90. 

89.65 

91.50 

Average  mean  temp,  of  spring  . . . 

56.3 

58.64 

58.93 

56.71 

.Vvm; 

66!i3 

Maximum  temp,  of  spring 

90. 

91. 

91. 

84. 

90. 

87. 

Minimum      "                 "        

6. 

12. 

11. 

31. 

10  50 

30. 

Range  of  temp,  in  spring 

84. 
74.02 

79. 

75.41 

80. 
74.33 

53. 

74.40 

79.50 

74.27 

57. 

Average  mean  temp,  of  summer.  . 

75.57 

Maximum  temp,  of  summer 

92. 

97. 

95. 

92.90 

94.50 

101.50 

Minimum        "                  "       

61. 

77. 

66. 

48. 

65. 

58.50 

Range  of  temp,  in  summer 

81. 

51. 

29. 

44.90 

29-50 

43. 

Average  mean  temp,  of  autumn. . . 

55.40 

57.61 

58.80 

57.54 

.>..->(■> 

59.40 

91. 

94. 

95. 

86. 

90. 

90. 

15. 

19. 

20. 

15. 

21. 

28. 

Range  of  temp,  in  autumn 

76. 

75. 

75. 

71. 

69. 

62. 

Average  mean  temp,  of  winter  . . . 

38.66 

38. 

41.20 

37.87 

40.97 

44.66 

69. 

72.50 

73. 

74. 

68. 

6. 

6.50 

5. 

3.25 

3. 

Range  of  temp,  in  winter 

63. 

66. 

68. 

70.75 

65. 

Inches. 

In. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

In. 

Inches. 

59.25 
12.60 

43.61 
10.55 

54.74 
15.03 

53.48 
13.41 

58.47 
12.35 

49.30 

17.40 

"         "  summer 

13.15 

9.57 

14.37 

13.32 

14.02 

7.29 

12.40 

7.54 

13.39 

11.63 

11.83 

14.54 

"         "  winter 

21.10 

15.95 

11.95 

15.12 

20.27 

6.93 

Date  of  last  frost  in  spring  (average 

Apr.  10 

.... 

Apr.  17 

Oct.  18 

.... 

Oct.  20 

Number  of  davs  without  frost 

166 

. . . 

173 

Number  of    days  without    killing 

181 

.... 

180 

/ 

S.W  .X.E. 

CalmNW 

S.,    N.W., 

NW,S.W. 

Prevailing  winds  in  order  of  fre-  l 

X.,  s..  w., 

S.W..    X. 

X.E..calm 

X.E..S.E.. 

quency                                             i 

E.,  calm 

S.E..  E... 

S.E..X  . 

calm 

X.W..S.E. 

S.W..X.E. 

SW..E.W.1 S..  X. 

The  only  mineral  springs  of  note  in  Tennessee  are  the  Mont  vale 
Springs  (calcic  chalybeate),  delightfully  situated  in  the  Chilhowee 
Mountains,  in  Blount  County,  nine  miles  from  Maryville,  a  station  on 
Knoxville  and  Charleston  Kailroad. 


190 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


One  pint  contains. 

60°  F. 
Prof.  F.  B.  Mitchell. 

1                   60°  F. 

J.  R.  Chilton,  M.D. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  iron 

Grains. 

0.300 
1.657 
0.245 

0.564 
1.500 
9.276 

0.062 

Grains. 

Carbonate  of  lime  

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  magnesium 

Chloride  of  calcium 

Sulphate  of  soda .... 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 

Sulphate  of  lime 

0.012 
0.018 
1.102 
2.134 
10.243 
0.149 

Oxide  of  iron  

Alumina 

trace 
0.005 

Organic  matter 

Total 

13.604 

13.663 

Florida  is  an  extensive  peninsuia  450  miles  long  from  north  to  south, 
and  with  an  average  breadth,  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  west  and 
the  Gulf  Stream  on  the  east,  of  a  little  less  than  90  miles. 

Of  the  face  of  the  country  it  may  be  truly  said  the  most  characteristic 
feature  is  the  everglades  and  the  number  of  lakes.  But  there  is  also  a 
great  number  of  running  streams,  sluggish  though  many  of  them  are, 
and  not  a  few  with  extensive  swampy  borders.  There  are  also  many 
springs,  and  some  of  them  of  immense  size,  and  strongly  impregnated 
with  sulphur  and  lime. 

The  surface  of  the  State  is  generally  level,  the  greatest  elevations  be- 
ing not  more  than  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Gulf,  and  these  heights  being  attained  in  very  few  places. 
The  soil  is  alluvial  and  diluvial.  In  the  interior  and  most  elevated  por- 
tion, it  is  composed  of  clay  intermingled  with  a  calcareous  formation, 
resting  upon  coral  beds  evidently  of  great  age. 

The  lands  are  generally  classified  as  bigh-hammock,  low-hammock, 
savanna,  swamp,  and  pine.  The  pine  lands  are  the  most  extensive,  and 
some  of  its  forests  rival  those  of  the  Atlantic  slope.  The  hammocks  also 
are  very  extensive,  and  covered  with  live  oak  and  other  oaks,  hickory, 
gum,  magnolia,  and  luxuriant  undergrowth. 

The  climate  is  essentially  insular  and  oceanic,  in  conjunction  with 
the  forest,  under  peculiar  circumstances. 

Those  who  would  measure  climate  at  the  level  of  the  sea  by  the  me- 
ridian only  will  wholly  fail  to  form  a  correct  conclusion  in  regard  to  the 
climate  of  Florida. 

Northern  Mexico,  the  peninsula  of  California,  the  Desert  of  Sahara, 
Central  Arabia,  Xorthern  Hindostan,  Northern  Burmah,  Southern 
China,  and  numerous  other  regions  of  less  note,  and  some  of  them  insu- 
lar, in  the  same  latitude  as  Florida,  have  climates  more  or  less  similar 
to  one  another,  but  all  strikingly  dissimilar  from  that  of  Florida;  and 


ToroGKAIMlY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI     ISAM.N.  I'.tJ 

for  the  manifest  reason  that  none  of  them  are  bounded  by  an  immense 
body  of  warm  water  on  one  side,  and  a  swiftly  flowing  ocean  current  on 
the  other,  and  the  peninsula  between  covered  by  a  luxuriant  forest — a 
combination  of  conditions  for  the  production,  maintenance,  and  modifi- 
cation of  an  ocean  and  forest  atmosphere  that  exists  nowhere  else  to  the 
same  degree,  and  which  results  in  a  climate  peculiarly  its  own,  remarka- 
ble for  its  salutary  influences  as  a  winter  resort  for  invalids  with  pulmo- 
nary consumption. 

The  climate  of  Florida  is  well  described  by  the  following  extract  from 
a  pamphlet  of  the  "  State  Bureau  of  Immigration  : " 

"  The  climate  of  Florida  is  not  a  hot  climate  in  summer,  but  mild 
and  not  subject  to  great  changes  in  temperature.  The  winters  are  not 
cold  and  freezing,  but  uniformly  cool  and  bracing.  Throughout  the  whole 
twelve  months,  the  rainy,  cloudy,  disagreeable  days  are  an  exception ; 
fair,  bright,  sunny  days  are  the  rule.  The  thermometer  seldom  goes  below 
30°  in  winter  and  rarely  above  90°  in  summer.  The  official  records  show 
the  average  of  summer,  78°;  of  winter,  60°.  The  daily  constant  ocean 
breezes  in  summer  modify  the  heat  (the  Gulf-breeze  coming,  with  the 
setting  sun,  cools  the  air  at  night);  a  warm  or  sultry  night  is  almost 
unknown.  Official  sanitary  reports,  both  of  scientific  bodies  and  the 
army,  show  that  Florida  stands  first  in  health,  although  in  the  reports 
are  included  the  transient  or  recent  population,  many  of  whom  take 
refuge  here  as  invalids,  some  in  the  lowest  stages  of  disease.  In  the 
greater  portion  of  the  State,  frost  is  rarely  known.  The  summer  is 
longer,  but  the  heat  less  oppressive  than  midsummer  at  the  North;  this 
results  from  its  peculiar  peninsular  shape  and  the  ever-recurring  breezes 
which  pass  over  the  State.  For  days  together,  New  York,  Boston,  and 
Chicago  show  in  summer  temperature  as  high  as  100°;  it  is  very  rare 
that  it  reaches  that  degree  in  Florida  for  a  single  day,  generally  ranging 
below  9CT;  not  oppressive,  modified  by  the  ever-changing  air;  not  sultry, 
close,  or  humid  ' ;  mornings  and  evenings  always  cool  and  bracing.   .   .   . 

"  There  are  years  when  in  some  localities  there  is  a  drought,  and  years 
when  portions  of  the  State  have  had  excessive  rains,  but  they  do  not 
extend  far." 

Jacksonville,  latitude  30°  15'  north;  longitude  82°  west,  according 
to  recorded  observation  thrice  daily  for  twenty  years,  by  Dr.  E.  S.  Bald- 
win, give  a  mean  temperature  for — 


January, 55° 

February,     ....  58° 

March 64 ' 

April, 70° 

May, 76= 

June, 80° 


July 82° 

August,         ....  82° 

September 78° 

October,        ....  70° 

November,       ....  62° 

December,    ....  52° 


1  See  table  of  Humidities.     Author. 


192 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


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TOPOGRAPH Y,    ETC.,    OF    THE    &OSSI88IPFI    BASIN.  L93 

The  Spanish  records  of  St.  Augustine  show  that  for  100  years  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  winter  months  averaged  a  little  over  60  ,  and 
of  the  summer  months  86°.  The  extremes  of  the  year,  taking  the  pen- 
insula together,  show  about  35"  as  the  coldest  and  95  as  the  hottest 
temperature,  and  neither  extreme  is  reached  more  than  two  or  three 
times  in  the  year.  The  summer  lasts  seven  or  eight  months,  and  during 
the  whole  period  there  are  very  few  uncomfortably  hot  days,  the  sea- 
breezes  tempering  the  air,  and  the  nights  are  uniformly  cool.  The  rainy 
Beason  usually  extends  over  three  or  four  months,  but  it  only  consists  of 
more  frequent  showers  than  through  the  other  months,  and  sometimes 
heavy  and  drenching  rains,  but  seldom  of  more  than  four  hours'  duration. 
Occasionally  there  are  long  droughts  in  some  sections,  and  heavy  rain- 
in  others.  The  preceding  table,  made  up  from  the  army  and  Signal 
Service  records  and  other  reliable  data,  gives  the  data  for  the  points 
named  in  addition  to  other  data  in  the  previous  chapter. 

The  climate  of  Southern  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
and  Southern  Texas,  is  for  about  two-thirds  of  the  year  hot;  and  along 
the  coast  and  river  valleys  unhealthy.  Endemic  malarial  fevers  here 
jorevail  more  or  less,  annually,  and  sometimes  with  great  severity.  And 
at  such  sea  ports  of  the  Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  as  have  been 
or  are  now  kept  in  a  state  of  receptivity — by  the  accumulation  of  filth — 
yellow  fever  is,  as  it  has  always  been,  wont  to  make  ports  of  entry. 

The  climate  of  Southern  Texas,  as  described  by  Assistant  Surgeon  P. 
~F.  Harvey,  U.  S.  Army,1  is,  "in  the  aggreate  subtropical,  but  torrid 
heats  prevail  during  the  summer  months. 

"  During  the  hotter  periods  of  the  year,  the  mercury  indicates  a  tem- 
perature over  100D  in  the  shade  for  weeks  at  a  time  occasionally.  At 
such  times,  hot  dry  winds,  comparable  to  the  simoons  of  Arabia,  blow 
from  the  parched  plateaus  of  Mexico,  wilting  the  vegetation  and  com- 
pelling the  closure  of  doors  and  windows  to  exclude  the  dust  and  heat. 
The  prevailing  winds  for  all  seasons  are  from  the  southeast.  Sudden 
storms  of  wind  from  the  north,  with  or  without  rain,  attended  with 
rapid  lowering  of  the  temperature,  called  wet  or  dry  northers,  are  fre- 
quent in  winter.  The  atmosphere  is  generally  dry;  beef  used  by  the 
Mexicans  is  prepared  and  preserved  by  drying  it  in  the  open  air,  desic- 
cation taking  place  rapidly  and  thoroughly.  .  .  . 

"  Diarrhoea  and  dysentery  may  be  regarded  as  the  prevailing  diseases. 
.  .  .  Rheumatism  and  neuralgia  prevail  to  a  considerable  extent. 

"  Diseases  of  the  lungs  and  air-passages  were  of  infrequent  occurrence 
and  mild  grade.  Catarrhal  affections  were  most  prevalent  during  the 
winter  months  and  were  due  to  climatic  influences.     Malarial  fevers 


1  Ringold  Barracks,  on  the  Rio  Grande  ;  latitude,  26°  23'  north ;  longitude, 
21  °  50'  west  :  altitude,  521  feet.     Op.  cat.,  p.  229. 
13 


194  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    iUSSIsSIPPI    BASIX. 

were  rare  among  the  troops  (colored),  their  immunity  being  largely  due, 
no  doubt,  to  the  well-known  idiosyncrasies  of  the  negro  race,  as  diseases 
of  this  class  were  much  more  frequent  when  white  troops  formed  the 
garrison.'" 

Of  19,120  cases  of  disease  of  all  kinds  recorded  at  sixteen  military 
posts  in  Texas  during  four  years,  1870-1874,  77,  or  1  in  248.2,  were  for 
consumption.  The  most  preyalent  diseases  were  malarial  fevers  and 
diarrhceal  diseases.  The  largest  proportion  occurred  at  Fort  Clark, 
Kinny  County,  latitude  29  17'  north;  longitude  23'  18'  south;  approxi- 
mate eleyation  aboye  the  level  of  the  sea,  1,000  feet;  where,  out  of  1,509 
cases,  846  white  and  661  colored,  there  were  of  consumption  14  cases,  6 
white  and  8  colored.  The  site  of  this  post  is  a  rocky  ridge  of  limestone, 
embraced  in  a  curve  of  Las  Moras  Creek,  which  issues  from  the  Las 
Moras  Spring — a  sort  of  pond  about  one-eighth  of  an  acre  in  area — 400 
yards  north  of  the  post.  The  prevailing  winds  are  east-southeast.  When 
the  wiud  varies  in  force  and  direction,  it  is  always  the  premonition  of  a 
■'■'norther/'  which  occurs  about  once  every  ten  days  during  the  winter 
season,  i.  e.,  from  the  beginning  of  November  to  the  end  of  March. 
During  these  northers,  the  wind  usually  blows  with  great  violence  from 
the  northwest,  north,  and  northeast,  but  most  severely  from  the  north- 
west, during  which  it  is  impossible  to  travel  over  the  plains;  in  summer 
they  are  less  frequent  and  not  so  violent. 

Of  13,270  cases  of  disease  of  all  kinds  recorded  in  the  military  posts 
of  G-eorgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana  during  four  years, 
1870-1874,  51,  or  1  in  260  were  for  consumption.  The  most  prevalent 
diseases  in  these  posts  for  the  period  were  intermittent  fever  and 
diarrhceal  diseases. 

Several  mineral  springs  are  said  to  exist  in  Florida  :  At  Green-Cone, 
Clay  County,  accessible  by  steamboat  on  St.  Johns  River,  from  Jackson- 
ville, contains  sulphates  of  magnesia  and  lime,  chlorides  of  sodium  and 
iron;  Orange  Spring,  Marion  County,  near  Ocklawaha  River;  Senvance 
Springs,  Hamilton  County,  on  Savannah,  Florida,  and  Western  Railroad, 
the  water  has  strong  sulphurous  odor,  which  soon  passes  off  when  the  water 
is  collected,  and  then  it  is  palatable;  Tarpon  Spring,  Hillsboro  County, 
sixty  miles  from  Cedar  Keys,  said  to  contain  sulphur,  soda,  lime,  and 
salt :  and  there  are  several  others,  but  none  of  them  have  been  analyzed. 

Bladon  Springs,  Choctaw  County,  Alabama,  Bladon  landing,  on  the 
Tombigbee  River,  by  steamboat  from  Mobile,  situated  in  a  salubrious 
pine-forest  region,  are  alkaline  and  sulphur. 


T<>  1'ix.  KAl'IIY,    ETC.,    OF    Till!    MIS-I  —  IPP]     BASIN. 


195 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  soda 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, 

Carbonate  of  iron 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Sulphate  of  iron 

Sulphate  of  manganese 
Silica  and  alumina. 

Crenic  acid 

Hypocrenic  acid 

Organic  matter 

Loss 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 

Chloride 


Vichy  Spring, 

J.L.  & 
W.  P.  Riddell. 


Grai  ns. 

5.7W 

0.036 
0.062 
0.109 


0.282 
trace 

6!  282 

6.562 

Cubic  in. 

8.18 
trace 

0.23 


Branch  Spring, 

6?"  F 

J.  L.  & 

W.  P.  Riddell. 


Grains. 

5.151 
0.076 
0.029 

(1.207 


n. :;!'.» 


0.237 


6.112 

Cubic  in. 

7.40 
trace 

0.23 


Ola  Spring, 
R.  T.  Brumby. 


Grains. 

4.111 
0.170 


0.344 
0.962 
0.002 
0.030 

6.263 
0.091 
0.075 

6.646 

6.088 

Cubic  in. 

4.07 
undeter- 
mined 


Sulphur 

Spring, 

f.h.  & 

W.  P.  Iti. I. I.-II 


Grains. 

4.367 
0.081 
0.095 
0.302 


0.370 


trace 


0.156 


5.371 

Cubic  in. 

6.61 
0.07 


0.23 


Blount  Springs,  Blount  County,  Alabama,  1,580  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  accessible  by  railroad  from  Montgomery  to  Decatur,  about 
85  miles  northwest  from  Montgomery: 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia . 

Carbonate  of  iron 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  magnesium 
Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 


Red  Sulphur. 
Prof.  R.  Brumby. 


Grains. 

0.55 
0.24 
0.85 
4.04 
0.75 
0.20 

6.63 

Cubic  inches. 

0.75 

1.87 


Sweet  Sulphur. 
Prof.  R.  Brumby. 


Grains. 

0.45 
0.14 
0.56 
3.86 

6.30 

5.31 

Cubic  inche3. 

0.75 
1.57 


Valhemosa  Springs,  Morgan  County,  Alabama,  by  steamboat  on 
Tennessee  River,  said  to  be  sulphur  and  chalybeate.     No  analysis. 

Cooper's  Well,  Hines  County,  and  Ocean  Springs,  Jackson  County, 
Mississippi,  on  New  Orleans,  Mobile,  and  Texas  Railroad,  are  both  held 
in  high  esteem  by  those  who  are  best  acquainted  with  them.  The  first, 
as  chalybeate,  with  mild  purgative  qualities,  said  to  resemble  the  waters 


196 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    MISSISSIPPI    BASIN. 


of  Booklet  Springs,  near  Kissingen,  Bavaria. 
F.,  Prof.  J.  Lawrence  Smith): 


One  pint  contains  (50° 


Solids. 

Grains 

Chloride  of  sodium, 

1.045 

Chloride  of  magnesium,    . 

0.435 

Chloride  of  calcium,     . 

0.540 

Sulphate  of  potassa, 

. 

.       0.076 

Sulphate  of  soda, 

1.463 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,        . 

, 

. 

.       2.910 

Sulphate  of  lime, 

5.265 

Sulphate  of  alumina, 

g 

t          t 

.       0.765 

Peroxide  of  iron,           .            .            , 

0.420 

Crenate  of  lime, 

.      0.039 

Silica,       . 

0.225 

Total,            .... 

.     13.183 

Gases. 

Cubic  in. 

Carbonic  acid,    . 

4.0 

Oxygen,        .... 

, 

,          , 

.       1.5 

Nitrogen,             .             .             .             . 

4.5 

Ocean  Springs:     One  pint  contains 

(J.  L.  Smith): 

Solids. 

Grains. 

Chloride  of  potassium, 

trace. 

Chloride  of  sodium, 

, 

#           , 

.      5.971 

Chloride  of  magnesium, 

0.621 

Chloride  of  calcium, 

, 

,          # 

.       0.485 

Protoxide  of  iron, 

0.589 

Iodine,          .... 

, 

, 

trace. 

Alumina,             .... 

,          . 

trace. 

Organic  matter, 

• 

•          • 

trace. 

Total,       ..... 

7.666 

Gases. 

Cubic  in. 

Carbonic  acid, 

. 

. 

.      1.22 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 

.          , 

0.16 

In  Louisiana,  it  is  said  that  within  a  radius  of  thirty  miles  from 
Mansfield  are  several  valuable  sulphur  and  chalybeate  springs.  De  Soto 
Springs,  at  Mansfield,  forty  miles  by  stage  from  Shreveport,  on  the  Red 
River,  and  White  Suljrfmr  Springs,  twenty-five  miles  by  stage  from 
Alexandria,  on  the  Eed  River,  are  described  as  excellent  sulphur  waters, 
with  saline  ingredients,  useful  in  biliary  engorgements.  No  analysis. 
These  springs  are  well  situated  in  the  upland  pine-wood  region. 

Fairview  Springs,  near  Kassee,  Limestone  County,  Texas,  have 
recently  been  brought  to  notice.  One  pint  contains  (Prof.  C.  F. 
Chandler): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Chloride  of  sodium 0.220 

Sulphite  of  sola,     .......       0.700 


TOPOOBAPHT,    BTO.j    <»i     CHE    II1B8I88IPP]    BASIN.  L97 

(ilaillS. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,  .....  L.228 

Sulphate  of  lime,     .......  0.168 

Alumina  and  its  sulphate,        .....  0.675 

Phosphate  of  iron,  .......  0.257 


Total 3.249 

Piedmont  Springs,  in  Grimes  County,  and  White  Sulphur  Springs, 
in  Cass  County,  Texas,  have  been  reported,  but  without  analysis. 

Except  the  mountainous  region  of  Alabama,  there  are  no  elevations 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Gulf  States  more  than  a  thousand  feet 
above  the  Gulf;  and  except  the  salutary  influence  of  the  forests,  there 
are  no  natural  conditions  which  exercise  any  influence  over  the  climate 
beyond  the  ordinary  effects  of  latitude. 

In  the  piny  uplands,  however,  and  particularly  in  the  northern  part 
of  Alabama,  through  which  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  extend,  though 
not  to  a  very  great  height,  and  away  from  the  low,  dark  bottom  lands 
of  the  coasts  and  water  courses,  the  climate  of  this  region  is  generally 
healthy. 

Arkansas  lias  great  variations  of  surface.  In  the  western  and  north- 
western portion  of  the  State  there  are  extensive  elevated  prairies,  broken 
by  the  passage  across  them  of  the  Ozark  Mountains  in  a  northwesterly 
direction,  from  Little  Rock  to  Southwestern  Missouri,  and,  south  of  the 
Arkansas  River,  of  the  Massern  range.  The  hills  of  Ozark  range  rise 
to  a  general  elevation  of  1,500  to  2,000  feet,  with  summits  of  3,000. 
And  besides  these,  two  ranges  called  the  Black  Hills  and  Wachita  Hills 
in  the  west,  varying  from  a  few  hundred  to  a  thousand  feet  in  height, 
with  intervening  valleys  across  the  rich  prairies  and  luxuriant  forests, 
give  the  State  a  diversity  of  scenery  remarkably  beautiful,  and  a  cli- 
mate, on  the  whole,  of  exceptional  salubrity.  An  eastern  portion,  from 
twenty  to  one  hundred  miles  west  of  the  Mississipi,  is  an  exception. 
This  is  generally  low,  contains  numerous  small  lakes  and  swampy 
bayous,  and  is  unhealthy. 

Indian  Territory  is,  for  the  most  part,  low,  swampy,  and  unhealthy. 
The  northwest  corner,  through  which  the  Wachita  range  of  mountains 
extends  about  fifty  miles,  is  somewhat  exceptional,  and  relatively  salu- 
brious, approaching  the  far  more  salubrious  climate  in  general  of  northern 
Texas. 

The  surface  of  Missouri,  in  its  southern  portion,  partakes  some- 
what of  the  character  of  the  adjacent  region  of  Arkansas.  Excepting 
this,  there  are  no  elevations  above  a  thousand  feet.  The  surface  is  gen- 
erally rolling  and  level  prairie,  with  occasional  forests.  The  southeastern 
portion,  which  is  subject  to  frequent  overflow  by  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries,  is  low  and  swampy,  and  insalubrious.  Otherwise,  there  are 
no  special  surface  characteristics  that  exercise  any  influence  over  the 


198  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI   BASIN. 

climate  beyond  what  may  be  learned  by  reference  to  the  charts  and 
tabulated  data  on  other  pages. 

Texas  highlands  are  among  the  most  salubrious  regions  in  the  coun- 
try. In  the  vicinity  of  Fort  McKavett,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  San  Saba  River,  about  two  miles  from  its  source,  latitude  30°  50' 
north;  longitude  23°  17'  west;  altitude  2,000  feet  :  Assistant  Surgeons 
R.  Sharpe  and  S.  M.  Horton,  U.  S.  Army,  report:1 

"  The  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the  delightful  breezes  of  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  throughout  the  latter  part  of  the  spring,  the  entire 
summer  and  fall,  the  middle  portion  of  the  days  during  a  great  part  of 
this  time  being  excessively  warm,  and  the  sunlight  excessively  bright, 
which,  with  the  dry  winds  blowing  incessantly,  tries  the  eyes  to  the 
utmost  when  out  of  doors;  the  pure,  fresh  drinking  water  from  a  most 
excellent  spring,  bubbling  up  at  the  foot  or  base  of  the  bluff,  just  west 
of  the  post,  through  limestone  rock  of  indefinite  thickness,  and  in  con- 
sideration of  the  very  favorable  reports  of  former  years  as  to  the  small 
amount  of  sickness  occurring  in  this  vicinity:  these  have  all  combined 
to  give  this  post  and  locality  the  name  of  being  exceedingly  healthy." 

From  Fort  Stockton,  on  the  line  of  the  great  Comanche  trail,  lati- 
tude 35°  50';  longitude  25°  35';  altitude  4,850  above  sea-level.  Assistant 
Surgeons  P.  J.  A.  Cleary  and  E.  Alexander,  U.  S.  Army,  report:2 

"  The  beneficial  effects  on  the  atmosphere  and  climate  on  pulmonary 
affections,  and  particularly  on  phthisis  pulmonalis,  cannot  be  too  highly 
extolled.  The  atmosphere  is  warm,  dry,  and  pure.  Many  people  come 
to  the  State  to  have  their  'consumption'  cured,  but  generally  arrive 
when  the  disease  is  too  far  advanced,  and,  moreover,  do  not  come  far 
enough  west." 

The  climate  of  Kansas,  at  an  altitude  of  3,320  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  latitude  38°  55'  north;  longitude  23°  47'  west,  as  reported  by 
Assistant  Surgeons  M.  M.  Shearer  and  F.  H.  Atkins,  U.  S.  Army:3 

"It  is  of  great  salubrity  and  dryness.  Snow  falls  rarely,  and  in 
small  quantity,  seldom  lying  more  than  a  day  or  two.  High  winds  are 
common,  and  frequent  gales  of  alarming  force  often  blow  for  many 
hours.  During  the  warm  months,  the  direction  of  the  winds  is  from  the 
south  and  east,  and  this  is  reserved  during  cold  weather.  Malarial 
diseases  do  not  originate  here;  all  cases  having  their  origin  elsewhere. 
No  scurvy,  pneumonia,  pleuritis,  or  phthisis  had  occurred  during  1872 
or  1873,  and  but  six  cases  of  dysentery  were  treated  in  that  time. 
Influenza  has  also  been  very  rare." 

Climax  Springs,  Climax,  Camden  County,  Missouri,  on  Missouri 
Pacific  Railroad,  have  recently  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention   on 

'Op.  cit.,  pp.  217,  240. 
2  Op  cit.,  p.  240. 
3  Fort  Wallace.     Op.  cit.,  p.  307. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,   OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI    j:\sin. 


199 


account  of  the  extraordinary  proportion  of  the  iodides   and   bromides 
contained  in  the  water. 

One  pint  contains  (II.  "W.  Wiley) 


Solids. 

Grains 

Carbonate  of  lime,            .... 

0.651 

Chloride  of  sodium,     .... 

4.451 

Sulphate  of  lime,               .... 

0.707 

Iodide  and  bromide  of  potassium,    . 

0.319 

Iodide  and  bromide  of  magnesium, 

1.350 

Oxide  of  iron,  alumina,  and  silica,  . 

1.000 

Organic  and  undetermined, 

0.424 

Total,           ..... 

8.802 

Carbonic  acid,  3.45  cubic  inches. 

This  spring  is  in  a  cave  in  the  Ozark  Mountains,  about  1,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  consists  of  a  basin  about  twelve  feet  in 
diameter,  without  any  known  outflow.  Further  explorations  and  re- 
peated analyses  are  necessary  to  determine  its  character. 

Montesana  Springs,  Jefferson  County,  twenty  miles  south  of  St. 
Louis,  on  the  Iron  Mountain  Railroad,  are  saline  sulphur  waters,  re- 
sembling the  Blue  Lick  Springs. 

One  pint  contains  (60°  F.     Profs.  Potter  and  Riggs): 


Solids. 

Grains. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,   . 

1.756 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

8.931 

Chloride  of  potassium,     . 

2.046 

Chloride  of  soil  ium,     . 

45.638 

Chloride  of  magnesium,  . 

4.488 

Sulphide  of  sodium,     .             .             . 

0.042 

Hyposulphite  of  soda,       .            .            . 

0.093 

Sulphate  of  lime, 

4.046 

Phosphate  of  lime,            .            .            . 

trace 

Iodide  of  magnesium, 

0.106 

Bromide  of  magnesium,                .             . 

trace 

Iron  and  alumina, 

0.108 

Silica,          ..... 

0.063 

Total,     ..... 

67.317 

Gases. 

Cubic  inches 

Carbonic  acid,         .... 

5.80 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 

0.17 

Sweet  Springs,  Saline  County,  Mo.,  one  mile  from  Brownsville,  on 
Sedalia  and  Lexington  Branch  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railway,  are 
also  saline-sulphur. 


200 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI   BASEST. 


One  pint  contains 


Solids 

Carbonate  of  iron 

Carbonate  of  magnesia     . .    . 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  potassium 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  magnesium 

Chloride  of  calcium 

Chloride  of  lithium  

Sulphide  of  sodium 

Sulphate  of  calcium 

Sulphate  of  baryta  

Phosphate  of  calcium 

Bromide  of  magnesium 

Nitrate  of  magnesium 

Nitrate  of  ammonium 

Alumina 

Silica 

Organic  matter 

Total 


19.460 


Sweet  Spring. 

Arkesian  Spring. 

C.  P.  Willliams. 

0.  P.  Williams. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

0.070 

0.033 

trace 

0.025 

1.192 

5.031 

0.424 

3.570 

11.298 

94.514 

2.786 

10.914 

1.840 

9.349 

0.006 

0.036 

0.32& 

1.182 

7.242 

0.019 

o.osa 

0.014 

0.016 

0.022 

0.021 

0.011 

0  021 

0.135 

0.064 

0.506 

0.380 

131.613 


St.  Louis  Artesian  Well  is  a  good  saline  water. 
(73°  F.     Dr.  Litton): 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,   .... 
Carbonate  of  protoxide  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  lime,  .... 

Chloride  of  potassium,  .... 

Chloride  of  sodium,         . 

Chloride  of  magnesium,         .... 
Chloride  of  calcium,       .... 
Sulphate  of  lime,         ..... 
Silica,  ...... 

Total,     ....... 

Gases. 
Carbonic  acid,  ..... 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  .... 


One  pint  contains 


Grains* 

0.127 
0.066 
1.329 
1.126 
43.826 
4.792 
3.448 
5.709 
0.017 

60.440 
Cubic  inches. 
0.82 
0.03 


In  Arkansas,  the  Hot  Springs,  in  Garland  County,  Hot  Springs  Sta- 
tion, on  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  Railroad,  are  of  world- 
wide repute.     One  pint  contains  (93°-150°  F.): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Sulphate  of  potassa,  . 


Grains. 

0.016 

0.496 

0.001 

0.02a 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,   OF   THK    IOBSI88IPP]    BASIN. 


201 


Sulphate  of  Boda, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Sesquiozide  of  iron, 
Iodine, 

Bromine,   . 

Silicate  of  lime, 

Silica, 

Alumina, 

<  >rganic  matter,    . 

Water,    . 

Total, 


<  trains, 
0.047 
0.014 
0.018 

trace 
trace 
0.0.rj8 
0.288 
0.058 
0.088 
0.018 

1.069 


These  springs  are  very  extensive,  fifty-seven  in  number,  situated  in 
a  valley  od  the  western  slope  of  the  Eot  Springs  Mountain,  a  spur  from 
the  Ozark  Mountains,  thirteen  hundred  and  sixty  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  baths  are  very  elaborately  appointed,  and  they  are  deserv- 
edly esteemed  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  rheumatism  and  gouty  dis- 
eases, and  tertiary  syphilis. 

Ravenden  Springs,  Randolph  County,  twenty-eight  miles  by  stage 
from  O'Kean,  a  station  on  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  Rail- 
load,  are  valuable  alkaline  waters,  containing  so  large  a  proportion  of 
carbonic  acid  as  to  render  them  exceptionally  palatable.  One  pint  con- 
tains (Wright  and  Merrell): 


Solids. 

Grains. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,    . 

0.560 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

0576 

Carbonate  of  lithia, 

0.15? 

Chloride  of  sodium,     . 

0.273 

Chloride  of  magnesium, 

0.373 

Chloride  of  lime, 

0.155 

Sulphate  of  lime, 

trace 

Sulphate  of  alumina. 

0.295 

Silica           ..... 

0.103 

Iodine  and  iron,            .             . 

trac» 

Organic  matter,     .... 

0.232 

Total,           ..... 

2.724 

Gases. 

Cubic  inches 

Carbonic  acid          .... 

2.68 

Atmospheric  air, 

1.66 

Eureka  Springs,  in  Carroll  County,  have  also  attracted  some  atten- 
tion. A  published  analysis  shows  that  the  water  contains  only  0.483 
grains  of  alkaline  substances  to  the  pint,  and  leads  to  the  inference 
that  it  is  similar  to  that  of  Summit  Spring,  in  Maine,  chiefly  valuable, 
if  of  any  value  at  all,  for  its  negative  qualities  only. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

CLIMATOLOGICAL    TOPOGRAPHY    AND     MINERAL 

SPRINGS     OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

The  arid  and  sandy  surface  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  with  its  climatological  associates  of  variable  temperature 
and  exceeding  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  begins  at  the  100th  meridian, 
about  two  thousand  feet  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  fol- 
lows the  general  trend  of  the  mountains  northwesterly  to  the  113th 
meridian,  from  the  southern  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United 
States. 

Sandy  and  saline  tracts  of  various  dimensions  are  interspersed  over 
all  this  region,  yet  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  one  in  Utah,  none 
of  them  are  of  an  extreme  desert  or  basin  character. 

Of  the  physical  geography  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Blodget  re- 
marks1 that: 

"  The  most  important  point  in  the  vertical  configuration  of  the  re- 
gion is  its  plateau  character,  or  the  great  altitude  of  the  base-line  from 
which  the  mountains  rise  and  the  valleys  fall.  In  this  sense,  the  aver- 
age of  the  whole  continent  west  of  102°  of  longitude  might  be  taken  as 
on  a  base  of  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  excepting  only  the  imme- 
diate coast  of  the  Pacific  and  the  deeper  valleys  of  California.  A  better 
division  would  be  to  take  the  Rocky  Mountain  plateau  at  six  thousand 
feet,  and  that  of  the  great  basin  at  four  thousand;  still  throwing  out 
some  exceptional  districts  at  the  extreme  points  north  and  south.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  plateau  is  best  defined  at  the  vicinity  of  the  South 
Pass,  yet  it  extends  from  Fort  Owen  to  El  Paso,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  five  degrees  of  longitude  at  least;  more  correctly,  perhaps,  an  aver- 
age of  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  In  latitude  it  is  nearly  one  thou- 
sand miles  in  extent,  giving  an  area  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
square  miles  for  this  lofty  plateau.  The  short  mountains  interrupt 
these  irregularly,  rather  than  regularly,  and  the  characteristic  formation 
is  one  of  single  peaks  rather  than  chains  of  mountains,  and  few  of  these 
peaks  reach  up  to  snow-line. 

"  The  highest  plateau  may  be  distinctly  recognized  both  north  and 
south  of  the  Wind  River  Mountains  in  latitude  44°  and  45%  forming 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  88. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    WK8TEBH    HIGHLANDS.  203 

there  a  sage-plain  desert  al  t  lie  sources  of  the  Jefferson's  and  Madison's 
Forks  of  tlif  Missouri;  and  at  the  sources  of  Snake  River,  north  of  Fort 
Bill,  a  similar  desert  plain  occurs,  at  least  equally  elevated.  Passing 
some  rough  country  north  of  these,  another  great  plain,  extending 
from  Larime  to  Grand  River,  is  described  by  Fremont,  Stansbury,  and 
others.  The  valley  of  San  Luis,  in  Northern  New  Mexico,  is  another 
nearly  desert  area,  notwithstanding  its  great  altitude  of  nearly  eight 
thousand  feet. 

"  The  parks,  though  more  fertile,  belong  to  the  same  category  of  lofty 
plains,  and  southward  along  the  Rio  Grande,  the  chain  of  these  divides, 
and  they  pass  at  each  side,  retaining  the  same  characteristics  to  Fort 
Webster  and  the  Gila  at  the  west,  and  nearly  to  the  Rio  Grande  to  El 
Paso  on  the  east.  Whatever  doubt  there  may  be  in  assigning  a  place  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  system  to  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico  west  of 
the  Rio  Grand",  either  as  a  principal  chain  or  as  a  bifurcation,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  this  connection  of  plateaus.  Both  branches  fall  off 
in  altitude  to  three  or  four  thousand  feet  at  the  terminal  points  named, 
though  that  of  the  Sierra  Madre  on  the  west  extends  some  distance  to- 
ward the  Colorado  River,  forming  the  Grand  Canon,  in  regard  to  which 
little  is  positively  known  beyond  this  general  fact. 

"  At  the  highest  point  of  this  district  only,  or  at  the  mountains  iu  the 
vicinity  of  the  Parks,  described  by  Fremont,  in  39°  north  latitude,  and 
at  the  Wind  River  Mountains,  in  latitude  43°,  the  peculiarities,  better 
described  as  '  Alpine/  are  developed — the  snow  and  ice  remaining  late, 
with  the  verdure  and  freshness  belonging  to  high  mountains  in  Europe 
in  summer." 

Fremont's  graphic  description  of  the  region  of  the  Great  Parks,  forty 
years  ago,'  gives  a  better  idea  of 'its  general  features  than  any  which  has 
ever  been  given  since,  as  follows: 

"  The  valley  narrowed  as  ws  ascended,  and  presently  degenerated 
into  a  gorge,  through  which  the  river  passed  as  through  a  gate.  We 
entered,  and  found  ourselves  in  the  New  Park — a  beautiful  circular  val- 
ley of  thirty  miles  diameter,  walled  in  all  round  with  snowy  mountains 
(June  14th),  rich  with  water  and  with  grass,  and  fringed  with  pine  on 
the  mountain  sides  below  the  snow  line.  Latitude  40'  52'  44";  elevation 
by  the  boiling  point,  7,720  feet. 

"  It  is  from  this  elevated  cove,  and  from  its  gorges  of  the  surround- 
ing mountains  and  some  lakes  within  their  bosoms,  that  the  great  Platte 
River  collects  its  first  waters. 

"  June  17th,  we  fell  into  a  broad  and  excellent  trail  made  by  buffalo, 
where  a  wagon  would  pass  with  ease,  and,  in  the  course  of  the  morning, 
crossed  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  through  a  pass  which  was 
•one   of   the  most   beautiful    we  had  ever  seen.     The  trail  led  among 

1  "  Senate  Reports  of  Explorations  in  1842,  '43  and  '44,"  p.  382. 


201  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

aspens,  through  open  ground  richly  covered  with  grass,  and  carried  us; 
over  an  elevation  of  about  9,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

"  The  Old  Park  is  more  or  less  broken  into  hills,  and  surrounded  by 
the  high  mountains,  timbered  on  the  lower  parts  with  quaking  asp  and 
pines.  On  the  20th  June,  a  piny  side  of  mountains,  with  bare  rocky 
peaks,  was  on  our  right  all  day,  and  a  snowy  mountain  apoeared  ahead. 
At  the  camp,  by  the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  our  elevation  was  here 
10,430  feet;  and  still  the  pine  forest  continued,  and  our  grass  was  good. 
On  the  21st,  in  a  ride  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  and  having 
ascended  perhaps  800  feet,  we  reached  the  summit  of  the  dividing  ridge, 
which  would  thus  leave  an  estimated  height  of  11,200  feet.  Immediately 
below  us  was  a  green  valley,  through  which  ran  a  stream,  and  a  short 
distance  opposite  rose  snowy  mountains,  whose  summits  were  formed  in 
peaks  of  naked  rock.'"  This  was  South  Park,  on  the  sources  of  Arkansas 
Kiver. 

"  Very  much  the  greater  portion  of  the  Eocky  Mountain  district, " 
says  Blodget,1  "is  one  of  plateaus  in  its  surface  character,  and  in  its 
consequences  in  every  respect,  sandy,  and  treeless,  and  saline,  in  alter- 
nating tracts,  interspersed,  of  course,  with  others  essentially  different 
and  with  rich  valleys.  Thus  the  valley  of  the  Eio  del  Norte,  which  is 
the  first  in  succession  from  the  south,  is  in  parts  rich,  and  in  others 
desert  or  basin-like,  as  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  and  the  basin  of  Lake 
Guzman,  both  on  the  south  and  in  Mexico;  the  Iomado  del  Muerto  of 
the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  in  New  Mexico,  and  the  sand  desert  of  the  Peco, 
River;  the  sand  hills  and  sandy  plain  of  San  Luis,  in  the  extreme  north 
of  New  Mexico,  at  an  altitude  of  8,000  feet;  the  dry  Larime  plain  at 
5,000  feet;  the  high  desert  plain,  north  of  Fort  Hall,  at  5,000  to  6,000 
feet;  and  the  Sage  desert,  on  the  east  of  the  central  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  at  the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  Jefferson's  Fork,  etc.  All 
these  points  are  no  less  characteristic  of  the  surface  and  configuration  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  district  than  the  peaks  and  Alpine  features  of  the 
district  of  the  Parks,  and  of  the  Wind  River  Mountains  themselves. 
West  of  this  district  lies  a  great  homogeneous  area  of  basins,  merging  at 
the  south  into  the  basins  of  Mexico,  enumerated  above.  Though  drained 
by  three  large  rivers,  or  traversed  by  them  rather,  since  they  get  most 
of  the  waters  beyond  it  and  very  little  in  it — the  Columbia,  Colorado, 
and  Gila — it  is  essentially  an  undrained  region,  or  one  sending  no  water 
to  the  sea.  Nearly  all  its  surface  is  studded  with  minor  basins,  the 
principal  one  of  which  is  Great  Salt  Lake.  Next  is  that  of  Humbolt 
River,  and  north  and  south  of  these  an  immense  area  possesses  charac- 
teristics of  great  uniformity,  the  chief  of  which  are  an  arid  climate 
and  a  barren  surface.  Sandy  and  saline  tracts,  salt  lakes  and  marshes; 
mesas,  or  high  and  abrupt  plateaus  of  small  extent,  without  wood  and 

1  Op.  cit. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THK    WISIIK.N     II  I. .  II  LANDS.  L'1  >5 

deficient   in   all  forma  of  vegetation;  unaltered  volcanic  districts   and 
rough,  abrupt  mountains  make  up  most  of  the  American  basin  region. 

'•  The  central  portion  in  latitude  is  near  the  40th  parallel,  and  at  an 
average  of  4.500  feet  above  the  sea  the  northern  extremity  declines  at 
bhe  48th  parallel  to  700  or  800  feet  in  the  lower  part  of  the  great  plains 
of  the  Columbia  River,  which  form  a  climatological  basin.  At  the  south. 
the  altitude  falls  off  to  sea  level  without  changing  its  climatological 
character  as  a  basin,  and  this  decrease  of  altitude  passes  through  several 
minor  basins;  in  fact,  that  of  the  Mojahve  River,  being  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal now  known,  and  not  much  above  the  level  of  the  Colorado  River, 
while  still  another  tract,  west  of  the  Colorado  and  further  south,  is  at 
or  below  sea  level. 

"The  area  occupied  by  this  basin  region  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
the  great  mountain  plateaus;  and  if  the  bordering  mountains  on  the  west 
are  included,  embracing  all  the  country  at  once  elevated  and  arid  west 
of  the  greater  altitudes  before  described,  the  area  can  scarcely  be  less 
than  five  hundred  thousand  square  miles,  of  which  the  average  altitude 
is  3,500  to  4,000  feet.  The  sum  of  this  and  the  first  district — 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles — expresses  very  forcibly 
the  immensity  of  this  feature  of  configuration;  and  it  is  more  essential  to 
bear  it  in  mind  in  the  consideration  of  climates  than  all  that  relates  to 
single  mountain  ranges.  And  climates  with  great  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture, and  with  the  most  complete  interruption  of  symmetry  in  their 
changes,  and  the  predominance  of  the  local  character  in  every  respect, 
necessarily  follow  from  this  configuration." 

Bearing  in  mind  the  general  effects  of  latitude  and  altitude,  taken  in 
•connection  with  other  meteorological  records  of  the  Signal  Service  given 
on  previous  pages,  and  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  surface  characteristics 
of  this  region,  it  would  be  difficult  to  reconcile  practical  conclusions 
with  such  descriptions  of  the  climate  of  the  Western  Highlands  as*  are 
frequent  in  current  literature,  based  upon  transient  observation  and  in- 
sufficient knowledge  of  the  physical  effects. 

"  From  an  experience  of  fourteen  months,  and  upon  natural  grounds," 
observes  Surgeon  A.  K.  Smith,  TJ.  S.  Army.1  "I  cannot  coincide  in  the 
popular  belief  that  Santa  Fe  (altitude,  6,850  feet  above  the  sea;  latitude, 
35°  41'  north;  longitude,  28°  29'  west),  and  the  contiguous  localities  of 
equal  or  superior  altitude  are  well  adapted  as  a  residence  for  persons 
suffering  with  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  heart  disease,  or  any  cause  pro- 
ducing obstruction  to  free  and  ample  respiration.  The  universal  testi- 
mony is,  so  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  that  a  stranger  to  the  rarefied  atmo- 
sphere, however  sound  his  circulatory  and  pulmonary  organs  may  be, 
is  almost  invariably  affected  by  a  great  oppression  in  respiration  upon 
his  advent  into  this  elevated  country,  accompanied  naturally  by  an  un- 

1  Op.  cit..  p.  293. 


206  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE   WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

wonted  lassitude  and  indisposition  for  exertion.  There  have  been,  in  th& 
case  of  two  or  three  of  my  acquaintances,  ugly  s}-mptoms  of  a  partiaL 
paralysis  of  the  organs  of  locomotion  and  speech.  A  continued  resi- 
dence, however,  is  said  to  overcome  these  unpleasant  effects  in  persons 
of  sound  and  robust  health;  and  from  the  number  of  Americans  and 
Germans  residing  in  the  higher  regions  of  New  Mexico,  who  transact 
their  business  at  no  small  expenditure  of  physical  exertion,  I  believe  this 
to  be  the  case,  and  that  in  time  an  accommodation  obtains  between  the 
lungs  and  the  somewhat  diminished  quantity  of  oxygen. 

"  As  regards  the  invalid  whose  breathing  apparatus  is  crippled  by 
tubercular  deposit,  by  chronic  pneumonia,  or  whose  blood,  whatever  may 
be  the  cause,  requires  full  aeration,  I  deem  it  worse  than  useless  for  him 
to  endeavor  to  regain  health  or  even  comfort  in  such  localities.  I  regard 
my  lungs  (and  my  chest  measurement  is  forty-four  inches)  as  perfectly 
sound,  and  yet  after  reporting  for  duty  in  Santa  Fe  I  could  not,  as  a 
general  rule,  breathe  comfortably,  although  at  times,  when  a  damp 
atmosphere  prevailed,  I  could  not  notice  any  impediment  to  respiration. 
The  past  summer  (1874)  was  exceptionally  warm,  and  I  was  at  intervals 
asthmatic  to  a  terrible  degree,  crushed  actually  by  a  feeling  of  impending 
dissolution.  The  common  advice  to  me  was  'wear  it  out;  you  will  be 
all  right  next  year.'  No  sooner,  however,  had  I  started  East  than  my 
troubles,  as  I  descended  in  altitude,  lessened  proportionally." 

From  Fort  Union,  with  an  altitude  of  6,700  feet,  100  miles  distant 
from  Santa  Fe,  situated  in  a  narrow  valley  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  Assistant  Surgeon,  W.  H.  Gardner,  U.  S.  Army,  re- 
ports:1 

"  Wind  from  some  quarter  is  almost  constant,  and  the  soil  being 
light  and  sandy,  is  blown  about  in  clouds  of  blinding,  suffocating  dust 
that  irritates  the  air-passages,  and  is  the  prevalent  cause  of  catarrhs, 
pharyngitis,  and  bronchitis. 

"  The  diurnal  variation  in  temperature  is  very  great,  the  thermometer 
frequently  showing  at  6  a.m.  but  60°,  and  at  2  p.m.  showing  90°;  even 
in  midsummer  nights  one  or  more  blankets  are  always  comfortable  to 
sleep  under.  Now  from  the  foregoing  causes,  namely:  the  high  eleva- 
tion, the  constant  winds,  the  suffocating  dust  storm,  and  the  great  di- 
urnal variations  in  temperature,  I  do  not  believe  this  post  can  be  favor- 
able for  any  kind  of  lung  disease;  and  though  my  medical  experience 
here  is  limited,  I  believe  it  will  point  to  the  same  conclusion. 

"  Shortly  after  arriving  at  the  post,  I  was  attacked  with  a  fulness  of  the 
head,  ringing  in  the  ears,  mental  hebetude  and  confusion  of  ideas,  dizzi- 
ness and  headache.  Thinking  these  symptoms  might  be  caused  by  con- 
stipation, dyspepsia,  or  torpidity  of  the  liver,  I  took  a  mercurial  purga- 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  303. 


i. >]■<»., i:\rii,  .  .     m  TH1   \vi.-iii:\    BIGHLA1 

tive,  and  followed  it  up  with  a  dose  of  Rochelle  salts,  which  relieve: 
fulness  of  oppression  for  a  day  or  two,  but  it  at  once  returned  ;  the 
dizziness  and  confusion  of  ideas  increased,  and  a  feeling  of  numb: 
and  tingling  commenced  in  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  and  gradually 
spread  until  it  involved  the  whole  left  side,  even  the  muscles  of  the 
tongue  being  involved  in  the  paralysis,  so  thai  I  could  not  articul 
There  was  also  oppression  of  the  breathing,  throbbing  of  the  carotids, 
and  slight  dilatation  of  the  pupils.  The  only  medicine  handy  at  the  time 
of  the  first  attack  was  a  bottle  of  chloroform;  and  thinking  the  symp- 
toms might  be  due  to  spasms  of  the  cerebral  or  pulmonary  veins,  I 
poured  a  drachm  or  two  on  my  handkerchief  and  inhaled  it,  when  the 
disagreeable  symptoms  promptly  subsided.  The  next  day.  on  my  visit  to 
Dr.  MofEatt,  of  our  corps,  I  told  him  of  my  troubles,  and  he  thought 
they  were  due  to  malarial  poisoning,  and  advised  me  to  commence  a 
course  of  quinia  and  arsenic,  which  I  at  once  did,  taking  twelve  grains 
of  quinia  and  one-tenth  of  a  grain  of  arsenic  each  day.  But  in  the 
course  of  five  or  six  days,  while  under  the  full  influence  of  these  medi- 
cines, I  had  another  attack  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  first,  coming  on 
after  a  hearty  dinner,  which  was  relieved  by  a  prompt  emetic.  Shortly 
after  this  second  attack,  I  was  sent  for  to  attend  a  case  of  midwifery  at 
Mora  (a  little  town  in  the  mountains,  fifteen  miles  northwest  of  the 
post,  and  about  four  hundred  feet  higher  in  altitude),  and  while  there 
alone  I  had  another  attack  more  severe  and  prolonged  than  the  other 
two;  and  upon  this  occasion  I  certainly  thought  there  would  be  another 
vacancy  in  the  Medical  Corps  to  fill,  for  I  took  emetics,  bromide  of 
potassium,  and  chloroform  ad  nauseam  without  the  least  effects.  The 
symptoms  went  off  before  morning,  but  when  I  got  back  to  the  post 
I  brought  the  Darwinian  theory  to  bear  on  the  case.  Ita  :  If  the  environ- 
ment of  an  animal  be  suddenly  changed,  and  the  animal  does  not  change 
its  habits  to  suit  its  environment  it  will  be  speedily  eliminated.  The 
only  radical  change  in  environment  I  could  detect  here  was  decreased 
atmospheric  pressure  from  increased  altitude,  and  consequently  deficient 
oxygenation  of  the  blood.  The  indication,  therefore,  was  either  to 
supply  the  deficiency  of  oxygen  to  the  blood,  or  to  reduce  the  volume  of 
blood  to  the  decreased  amount  of  oxygen.  The  alternative  seemed  to  be 
the  easiest  and  the  most  certain.  I,  therefore,  decreased  the  amount  of 
my  nitrogenous  food,  and  made  up  the  quantity  by  laxative  vegetables 
and  fruits,  and  have  been  in  good  health  ever  since.  I  have  seen  two 
cases  since,  in  every  respect  similar  to  mine,  and  they  have  promptly 
succumbed  to  the  treatment  indicated  ;  that  is,  decreasing  the  amount  of 
blood  to  the  decreased  amount  of  oxygen,  by  cathartics  and  decreased 
animal  food." 

From  Fort  Selden,  situated  in  a  sandy  basin  one  and  a  half  miles  from 
the  Rio  Grande,  in  southern  Xew  Mexico;   latitude,  32"  35'  north;  Ion- 


'208  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

gitude,  30°  west;  height  above  the  sea  about  4,250  feet.  Assistant 
Surgeon  Samuel  S.  Jessup,  U.  S.  Army,  reports:1 

"  Lung  troubles  are  comparatively  rare,  as  are  all  diseases  of  the  respi- 
ratory organs,  excepting  catarrh,  which  I  prefer  to  consider  separately  from 
bronchitis,  as  it  mostly  affects  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose,  ton- 
sils, and  larynx,  and,  I  think,  seldom  extends  even  to  the  trachea.  It 
seems  to  be  produced  by  the  almost  constant  drifting  of  the  irritating 
dust  peculiar  to  this  region,  and  few  new-comers  who  are  much  exposed 
in  the  open  air  escape  it.  It  gradually  wears  off  as  they  become  accli- 
mated. Women,  from  their  indoor  habits,  are  usually  free  from  it. 
The  native  New  Mexicans  are  not  at  all  affected  by  it.  Many  of  them, 
however,  suffer  from  a  form  of  bronchitis  induced,  it  is  thought,  by 
their  peculiar  fashion  of  smoking  the  cigarette,  i.  e.,  by  inhaling  the 
smoke  into  their  bronchial  tubes,  and  exhaling  it  through  their  nos- 
trils. 

"  The  climate  of  this  part  of  the  Rio  Grande  will  improve,  and  prob- 
ably tend  to  the  cure  of  many  patients  affected  with  commencing 
phthisis,  but  only  by  a  residence  here,  not  by  a  sojourn  of  a  few  months. 
I  think  I  am  within  the  mark  in  stating  that  it  will  take  from  eighteen 
months  to  two  years  to  acclimate  them.  To  those  in  advanced  stages 
no  such  benefit  can  accrue." 

From  Fort  Wingate,  situated  in  latitude  35°  20'  north;  31°  22'  west; 
altitude,  6,822  feet,  208  miles  distant  from  Santa  Fe  via  Albuquerque, 
Assistant  Surgeons  R.  S.  Vickery  and  J.  V.  De  Hanne,  U.  S.  Army, 
report  :2 

"  The  climate  dry  and  equable;  breezy  and  pleasant  in  the  hottest 
weather.  There  are  no  very  high  winds  except  in  March.  Average  dif- 
ference between  the  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometer  in  summer,  10.59°; 
in  winter  4.43°.  In  March  and  April  there  are  occasional  high  dry 
winds  from  southwest  and  west,  bringing  much  dust  with  them  and 
going  down  generally  at  sunset.     The  nights  are  nearly  always  calm. " 

Fort  Bayard,  situated  in  almost  the  extreme  southwestern  corner  of 
New  Mexico  ;  latitude,  30°  40'  north;  longitude,  31°  25'  west;  altitude, 
G,022  feet.  Distance  about  eighty  miles  from  Janos,  the  nearest  settle- 
ment to  the  Mexican  frontier.  Of  this  region,  Assistant  Surgeon  Wil- 
liam J.  Wilson,  U.  S.  Army,  reports  : 3 

"  On  the  north,  northwest,  and  east,  the  post  is  surrounded  by  high 
mountains  open  on  the  south  and  southeast.  Pine,  cedar,  and  oak  are 
found  in  large  quantities  on  the  surrounding  hills.  The  climate  is  de- 
lightful, but  there  is  very  little  rain,  except  during  the  rainy  season, 
which  lasts  from  about  the  end  of  June  until  the  middle  of  September, 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  296. 
5  Op.  cit.,  p.  311. 
3  Op.  cit.,  p.  246. 


T0P0GRA1MIY,    BTO.,    OF    TIIK    WKSTKIi.N     HIGHLANDS.  209 

when  more  or  less  rain  falls  nearly  every  day,  sometimes  in  torrents. 
The  winds  are  generally  from  the  west,  northwest  and  south,  and 
-vldom  severe.  Changes  in  temperature  are  very  gradual.  On  ac- 
count of  the  altitude  of  the  post  and  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
heat  of  summer  is  never  oppressive,  while  the  nights  are  always  de- 
liriously cool.  The  winter  season  is  very  mild,  one  or  two  light  falls 
of  snow  occurring  generally  in  February  and  lasting  but  one  or  two  days. 

"  In  bronchitis,  either  acute  or  chronic,  this  climate  is  unfavorable  for 
either  cure  or  relief.  The  air  is  too  rarefied  and  too  stimulating,  and 
acts  almost  as  an  irritant  to  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane.  I  have 
also  observed  in  even  slight  cases  of  catarrh  attended  with  cough,  that  they 
are  very  intractable.  I  have  seen  several  cases  of  phthisis,  and  have  one 
at  the  present  time  under  my  charge,  but  I  have  not  seen  any  beneficial 
results  produced  by  this  climate.  They  have  all  gone  on  from  bad  to 
worse,  and  finally  died.  I  believe  that  it  is  only  the  very  early  stages  of 
tubercular  disease  that  this  or  any  other  climate  can  exert  a  beneficial 
influence. 

"I  have  a  theory  of  my  own  in  regard  to  the  disease,  and  which  I  be- 
lieve I  have  seen  exemplified  by  several  cases;  and  that  is,  that  there  are, 
so  to  speak,  two  classes  of  cases,  one  of  which  is  characterized  or  accom- 
panied by  a  dry,  hacking  cough,  but  with  little  expectoration  and  a  ten- 
dency to  haemoptysis.  In  the  other,  there  is  a  copious  secretion  from  the 
bronchial  mucous  membrane.  This  latter  class  would  be  benefited  by  a 
mild  dry  climate,  not  subject  to  sudden  changes,  and  of  a  lower  altitude 
than  this,  say  2,000  or  3,003  or  4,000  feet.-  The  former  class  would 
lead  a  life  of  torture  here,  and  this  climate,  or  one  similar  to  it,  would 
only  add  to  the  mischief  already  done.  They  would  be  benefited  by  a 
mild  moist  climate,  in  close  proximity  to  the  sea.  Phthisis  is  almost 
unknown  among  the  Mexican  population  here,  notwithstanding  their 
filthy  habits,  probably  on  account  of  their  living  nearly  all  the  time  out 
of  doors,  and  being  natives  of  the  soil  and  accustomed  to  this  climate.  I 
know  that  horses  brought  here  from  the  States,  and  cattle  introduced 
here  go  down  in  condition  for  the  first  year  until  they  are  acclimated, 
and  I  believe  that  the  human  race  requires  also  a  certain  time  for  accli- 
mation." 

Of  4,728  cases  of  disease  from  all  causes  recorded  at  the  military 
posts  in  New  Mexico  during  four  years,  1870  to  1874,  10,  or  one  in  472.8, 
were  for  consumption.  The  most  prevalent  diseases  at  these  posts  dur- 
ing the  while  were  diarrhoea  and  catarrhal  diseases,  and  intermittent 
fever. 

In  Arizona,  from  Camp  Apache,  at  the  altitude  of  6,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  latitude,  33°  40';  longitude,  32°  52'  west.  The  climate  is 
described  by  Assistant  Surgeons  J.  B.   Girard  and   L.  G.  Lori ng1   as 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  525. 
14 


210  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

being  cool  and  moist,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  lower  districts.  The 
forests  are  extensive,  and  the  plateaus  and  river  bottoms  during  the 
rainy  season  are  luxuriant  with  rich  grasses.  Of  1,171  cases  of  dis- 
eases at  the  post,  during  the  period  1870-74,  there  was  one  only  of 
consumption.     There  were  446  cases  of  intermittent  fever. 

At  Camp  Grant,  in  the  southern  part  of  Arizona,  latitude  32°  25' 
north;  longitude,  323  23'  10"  west;  altitude,  3,985  feet  above  sea  level, 
Assistant  Surgeon  Gr.  McMiller'  describes  the  climate  as  an  eminently 
disagreeable  one.  "  The  warm  season  is  very  protracted  and  the  days 
very  hot.  The  nights,  however,  are  comparatively  cool;  otherwise  the 
heat  would  be  absolutely  insupportable.  The  winters  are  mild,  almost 
as  much  so  as  those  of  Florida;  but  violent  winds,  frequent  at  all  seasons, 
are  particularly  prevalent  during  the  cool  portion  of  the  year,  and  very 
heavy  rains  are  also  then  frequent,  especially  during  the  months  of  Jan- 
uary and  February.  There  are,  however,  occasional  periods  of  pleasant 
and  even  charming  weather,  especially  during  the  autumnal  months. 
The  mildness  of  the  winters  is  fortunate  for  the  military,  preventing 
much  discomfort  to  imperfectly-sheltered  officers  and  men.  The  cli- 
mate lacks  equability  at  all  seasons.  The  thermometer  may  indicate,  in 
winter,  a  point  below  freezing  at  day-break,  and  the  cold  may  be 
very  uncomfortable,  while  at  2  o'clock  p.m.  of  the  same  day  a  thin  coat 
may  prove  unpleasantly  warm  to  the  wearer.  Notwithstanding  the 
mildness  of  the  winters,  the  frequent  and  great  variations  of  temperature 
will  always  render  the  climate  an  unsuitable  one  for  phthisical  invalids. 
Catarrhal  affection^,  of  every  grade  of  severity,  are  exceedingly  common." 

At  Camp  McDowell,  situated  on  the  Eio  Verde  about  eight  miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  Salt  River,  latitude,  33°  40'  north;  longi- 
tude, 34°  37'  west;  altitude,  1,800  feet  above  the  sea:  "  The  climate  is 
warm  and  dry.  Although  the  thermometer  in  the  day-time  in  summer 
may  show  a  high  degree  of  heat,  the  nights  are  commonly  not  oppressive. 
Thunder  clouds  from  the  mountains  drop  a  heavy  passing  shower  once  a 
month.  In  winter  the  rains  are  lighter,  though  of  much  longer  dura- 
tion. Snow  falls  on  the  mountains,  but  not  on  the  mesa.  The  winds 
are  variable  and  light,  except  when  immediately  preceding  a  thunder 
storm."3 

At  Camp  Mojave,  situated  on  the  Colorado  Eiver,  near  the  head  of 
the  Mojave  Valley,  latitude  35°  6'  north;  longitude  37°  28'  west;  alti- 
tude, 600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  "  The  climate  is  healthy,  the 
winters  pleasant,  but  the  summers  extremely  hot.  There  is  no  rainy  sea- 
son, though  thunder  showers  are  frequent  in  July  and  August.  The  annual 
rise  of  the  Colorado  takes  place  in  June.     The  prevailing  winds  in  the 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  535. 

2  Assistant  Surgeons  Charles  Smart,  D.   De  Witt,  and  James  Reagles,  U.  S. 
Army.     Op.  cit.,  p.  544. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    i  iv.,   OF  mi:    wi.sii.kn    iik. iiianks.  211 

Bummer  are  from  the  south,  and  passing  over  the  arid   plains  the  air  La 

so  heated  that  its  scorches  like  that  from  an  oven.     The  nights  ai 
hoi  as  the  days,  the  temperature  not  varying  in  the  slightest  degree  for 

hours — so  hot  that  no  one  can  sleep  in  a  house,  the  whole  garrison  lying 
upon  the  open  plain,  endeavoring  to  catch  the  faintest  breeze,  the  walls 
of  the  houses  becoming  so  heated  as  to  render  t  he  barracks  unendurable.1 
Of  335 cases  of  disease  recorded  in  four  years  at  this  post,  1870—181  l.  live, 

were  for  consumption. 

"  In  the  valley  of  Granite  Creek  (at  the  base  of  Granite  .Mountain  near 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Sierra,  Prieta,  latitude  :il  29'  6"  north; 
longitude  35°  27'  30"  west);  during  the  spring  and  summer  tnonl  as,  the 
climate  is  mild;  there  being  none  of  the  long  and  scorching  heat  which 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  territory  kills  all  vegetation  except  that 
on  the  margin  of  the  streams.  Frequent  rains  fall  in  the  autumn,  and 
duriug  the  winter  the  mountains  are  covered  with  snow,  which  in  the 
severe  seasons  may  lie  even  in  the  valleys  for  two  or  three  weeks  at  a 
time."3 

Of  9,121  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  nine  military  posts  in  Arizona 
during  four  years,  1870-1874,  19,  or  1  in  480,  were  for  consumption.  The 
prevailing  diseases  were  intermittent  fevers,  catarrhal  and  diarrhceal 
diseases. 

The  climate  of  Southern  Colorado  is  reported  upon  by  Assistant 
Surgeon  P.  Moffatt,  U.  S.  Army,3  from  Fort  Garland,  situated  at  San 
Luis,  the  southern  of  the  Colorado  Parks;  latitude,  27°  23'  north;  longi- 
tude, 27°  20'  west;  altitude,  7,805  feet  above  the  sea. 

Dr.  Moffatt  observes  that : — 

"In  the  last  few  years  this  region  has  acquired  quite  a  degree  of 
notoriety  as  a  sanitarium  for  persons  suffering  from  various  forms  of 
chronic  disease — more  particularly  in  cases  involving  pulmonary  affec- 
tions. Great  numbers  of  invalids  come  to  this  territory  yearly  from  the 
Atlantic  States,  and  many  from  foreign  countries  in  search  of  health. 
This  region  promises  fair  to  become  to  health-seekers  the  Italy  and 
Switzerland  of  the  American  Continent,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
vie  with  the  Alps  and  Appenines  as  a  resort  for  those  in  search  of  a  new 
lease  of  life. 

"  In  considering  the  sanitary  effects  of  a  sojourn  or  permanent  resi- 
dence in  this  country,  including  not  this  point  only,  but  all  the  elevated 
regions  of  the  southwest,  two  distinct  points  are  to  be  taken  cognizance 
of  :  one  is  the  change  in  occupation,  manner  of  life,  and  social  relations 
to  which  the  individual  is  introduced,  and  which  he  is  led  to  adopt 

1  Assistant  Surgeons  F.  S.  Stirling  and  J.  B.  Lawrence,  U.  S.  Army,  Op.  cit., 
p.  547. 

8  From  Fort  Whipple,  Assist.  Surgeons  H.  R.  Lippincott  and  J.  B.  Girard, 
U.  S.  Army.     Op.  cit.,  p.  556. 

3  Op.  cit.,  p.  257. 


212  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 


upon  arriving  in  this  country;  the  other  has  reference  to  climatic  and 
other  conditions  peculiar  to  the  locality  to  which  he  is  subjected. 

"In  the  case  of  the  tourists  travelling  for  pleasure  or  for  health,  the 
drudgery  of  business  has  been  suspended,  and  recreation  is  made  the  object 
of  life  for  the  time;  or  the  indolent  and  luxurious  life  of  the  city  has  been 
exchanged  for  the  novelties,  exercise,  and  less  sumptuous  fare  of  "the 
mountains."  In  the  case  of  those  who  have  settled  permanently  in  the 
country,  they  too  have  adopted  occupations  and  habits  of  life  materially 
different  from  what  they  were  accustomed  to  before  coming  here.  It  is 
quite  a  usual  thing  in  these  mountainous  regions  to  find  people  living  a  pas- 
toral life,  or  prospecting  for  ledges  amidst  the  modest  surroundings,  and 
in  the  most  primitive  style,  who  had  been  reared  in  affluence  and  fashion 
in  some  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  East  or  of  Europe.  The  number  of 
the  population  who  prepare  their  victuals  over  the  camp  fires,  or  in  the 
rudest  cabins,  and  who  work,  eat,  and  sleep  in  the  open  air,  is  by  no 
means  inconsiderable.  Closely-built  buildings,  heated  with  stoves,  are 
the  exception  out  of  the  larger  towns.  Most  of  the  habitations  are  so 
constructed  as  to  admit  of  free  ventilation,  and  are  warmed  by  the 
primitive  back-log  upon  the  hearth,  or  the  little  fire  place  in  one  corner 
of  the  room,  where  the  wood  is  burned  on  end  after  the  Mexican  man- 
ner. It  is  my  opinion  that  no  small  degree  of  the  undoubted  benefits  of 
residence  in  these  mountainous  regions  is,  in  certain  forms  of  disease, 
attributable  to  these  causes.  From  what  I  have  observed,  it  is  by  those 
who  place  themselves  under  such  circumstances,  more  frequently  than 
by  those  who  endeavor  to  approximate  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  per- 
sonal surroundings  of  older  communities,  that  improvement  in  health  is 
enjoyed.  ■  As  a  general  thing,  the  more  thoroughly  the  person  can  ap- 
proximate his  occupation  and  manner  of  life  to  the  state  of  existence 
known  as  '  roughing  it/  the  better  the  result. 

"  The  principal  distinguishing  feature  of  Fort  Garland  and  vicinity,  in 
a  sanitary  point  of  view,  is  its  great  altitude.  Little  perceptible  effect 
is  observed  upon  the  respiration  of  persons  in  good  health,  as  a  general 
thing,  but  some  individuals  do  complain  of  a  want  of  breath  on  slight 
exertion.  The  respiration  is  somewhat  increased  in  frequency,  and  the 
action  of  the  chest  deeper  than  at  ordinary  altitudes.  This  is  rendered 
necessary  from  the  fact  that  a  greater  volume  of  air  is  required  to  fur- 
nish a  given  quantity  of  oxygen  to  the  economy  in  this  place,  where  the 
barometer  indicates  a  pressure  of  only  about  22.50  inches,  than  at  ordi- 
nary levels. 

"  To  this  increased  mechanical  action  or  play  of  the  lungs,  and  disten- 
tion of  the  parenchymatous  tissue,  may  be  attributed  part  of  the  bene- 
ficial effects  of  high  altitudes  in  certain  diseases  of  these  organs.  The 
effect  of  this  place  (San  Luis  Park,  Col.,  altitude  7,805)  upon  the  cir- 
culation is  quite  as  marked  as  upon  the  respiration.  The  pulse  of 
fifteen  persons,  all  in  good  health,  was  carefully  noted.     In  every  case 


TOPOGRAPHY,    BTO.,    OF   THB    WESTERS    SIOBLAND8.  213 

the  person  was  in  a  state  of  quiei  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  the 
subjects  being  either  seated  or  in  the  recumbenl  postnre.  Three  of  the 
number  were  females.  The  average  per  minute  of  the  fifteen  was,  in 
round  numbers,  ninety,  lacking  only  the  Blightesl  fraction,  in  exam- 
ining the  pulse  for  diagnostic  purposes,  I  had,  prior  to  these  observa- 
tions, and  almost  unconsciously,  dropped  into  the  habil  of  allowing  an 
increase  of  ten  to  fifteen  in  frequency  over  the  usual  rate  per  minute 
without  attaching  any  significance  thereto.  A  very  noticeable  feature 
in  connection  with  the  pulse  is  its  rapid  rise  in  frequency  upon  exertion. 
The  pulse  in  four  persons  in  perfect  health  was  noted  while  at  rest, 
and  again  after  a  brisk  walk  on  level  ground  of  a  hundred  yards,  with 
an  increase  in  frequency,  respectively,  of  28,  42,  35  and  23  per  minute. 
This  rapid  action  of  the  heart  and  excitability  upon  exertion  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  increased  rapidity  of  the  respiration,  but  it  constitutes  a 
very  serious  objection  to  this  place  as  a  residence  for  those  laboring 
nnder  cardiac  disease,  or  any  affection  in  which  it  forms  a-complication. 
I  have  not  seen  cases  of  this  nature  here;  but  from  what  I  have  observed 
in  other  localities  of  considerable  altitude,  I  am  satisfied  of  the  truth  of 
this  remark.  Altitude  seems  to  have  an  effect  upon  those  suffering  from 
heart  disease  something  similar  to  the  exertion  of  ascending  a  stair  or 
walking  up  hill.  In  any  case  in  which  this  condition  exists  as  compli- 
cation, whatever  may  be  the  benefit  otherwise,  I  am  satisfied  that  the 
embarrassment  caused  to  the  heart  will  be  a  serious  offset,  if  not  an  in- 
superable obstacle,  to  any  real  improvement.   .   .   . 

"  Vesicular  emphysema,  and  that  form  of  chronic  bronchitis  associated 
with  disease  of  the  heart,  I  believe  unsuited  to  a  residence  here,  or  in 
any  locality  possessing  this  altitude.  The  other  forms  of  chronic  bron- 
chitis, chronic  pneumonia,  and  phthisis,  are  the  diseases  par  excellence 
for  which  I  believe  this  region  peculiarly  well  fitted. 

"A  case  is  under  my  observation  at  present  at  this  post,  of  a  man  who 
left  the  Atlantic  coast  a  little  over  one  year  ago,  and  came  to  Colorado  for 
bis  health.  Before  leaving  the  East  he  had  suffered  three  alarming 
hemorrhages  from  the  lungs,  and  his  case  was  considered  grave  in  the 
extreme.  Since  coming  to  this  region  he  has  much  improved,  and  has 
had  no  repetition  of  the  hemorrhage.  A  permanent  residence  in  this 
country  will,  in  all  probability,  confer  length  of  years  upon  a  life  which 
was  considered  doomed  before  he  left  his  home  in  the  East.  Another 
case  has  come  under  my  observation  in  contrast  with  this,  where  a  man 
came  to  this  region  in  the  third  stage  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis  ten 
months  ago.  He  wTas  not  improved  by  coming  here;  but  on  the  con- 
trary, the  increased  labor  imposed  upon  the  portion  of  lung  still  re- 
maining caused  a  constant  uncomfortable  feeling  of  want  of  breath. 
At  an  unexpected  moment,  after  he  had  been  in  this  country  some 
months,  violent  pulmonary  hemorrhage  occurred,  and  the  man  died 
within  ten  minutes." 


214  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

Of  2,124  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  Forts  Garland  and  Lyon,  Colo- 
rado, during  four  years,  1870-1874,  5,  or  1  in  422.8,  were  for  consump- 
tion. Of  these,  1,2G7  cases,  and  4  for  consumption  occurred  at  Fort 
Garland,  7,805  feet  elevation;  and  857  cases,  and  1  for  consumption, 
occurred  at  Fort  Lyon,  3,800  feet  elevation.  The  most  prevalent  dis- 
eases at  both  places  were  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  and  diarrhoeal  diseases. 

At  the  military  posts  of  Kansas  for  the  same  period,  15,051  cases 
were  recorded,  of  which  29,  or  one  in  347.3  were  for  consumption. 

In  Nebraska,  for  the  same  period  9,777  cases,  of  which  14,  or  one  in 
G98.3,  were  for  consumption.  Catarrh  and  bronchitis,  and  diarrhceal 
diseases,  were  alike  the  most  prevalent  diseases  in  the  military  posts  of 
both  these  States. 

Wyoming.  Assistant  Surgeon  Charles  Smart  reports  from  Fort 
Bridger,  altitude  7,010  feet.1 

"  The  climate  is  temperate  and  salubrious  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
The  weather  during  the  fall  months  is  mild  and  delightful,  excepting  a 
few  snowstorms  of  short  duration.  No  severe  weather  occurs  before  the 
middle  of  December;  after  that  time  there  are  frequent  storms  and  high 
winds.  Cold  weather  continues  late  in  the  spring,  and  the  grass  does 
not  begin  to  grow  until  in  May.  Although  the  post  is  in  a  valley,  with 
streams  all  around  and  through  it,  the  atmosphere  is  comparatively  dry, 
the  reading  of  the  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers  varying  from  ten  to 
fifteen  degrees.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west,  and  on  an 
average  blow  from  that  quarter  twenty-eight  days  in  a  month. 

"  In  investigating  the  amount  and  the  character  of  the  sickness  at  this 
station,  the  records  of  the  past  eight  years,  1866-1873,  have  been  ex- 
amined. Although  the  port  has  been  in  existence  since  1857,  the  records 
are  complete  only  from  the  close  of  the  war,  when  the  volunteers  were 
relieved  by  a  regular  garrison.  During  these  years  2,335  cases  were 
entered  on  the  register,  of  which  six  died  and  forty-nine  were  dis- 
charged,2 an  annual  average  of  1,932  cases  per  thousand  of  mean 
strength,  with  a  mortality  of  1  in  392  cases.  This  is  a  healthier  record 
than  the  average  of  the  army  during  the  same  period.  The  discharges, 
as  a  whole,  have  a  greater  bearing  on  the  physique  of  the  recruits  re- 
ceived than  the  diseases  prevalent  at  the  station;  setting  them  aside,  the 
other  diseases  show  to  the  advantage  of  Fort  Bridger.  If  we  express  the 
sickness  and  mortality  of  the  army,  each  as  a  unity,  Fort  Bridger's  sick- 
roll  will  be  represented  by  .81,  and  its  mortality  by  .25.  Acute  rheu- 
matism, conjunctivitis,  catarrh,  quinsy,  laryngitis,  and  phthisis  are 
specially  the  diseases  of  the  station.  These  would  seem,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  conjunctivitis,  to  be  developed  from  climatic  influences.  The 
spread  of  the  eye  diseases  was  the  result  of  low  ceilings,  overcrowding, 

^p.  cit.,  p.  316. 
2  Op.  cit.,  p.  316. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THH    \vi-iik\    HIGHLANDS.  '2 1  ."> 

and  defioienl  means  for  effeoting  personal  cleanliness.  It  continued 
iminenl  on  the  reoords  for  three  years,  and  disappeared  with  repairs 
and  improvements,  winch  furnished  increased  air-space  by  heightening 
the  ceiling  of  the  barrack-rooms  and  abolishing  donble-tiered  bunks.  This 
point  in  the  history  of  the  post  offers  a  good  example  of  what  sanitary 
science  can  accomplish.  Non-prof essional  men,  in  their  superiority  to 
such  trifles,  may  smile  at  the  doctor's  insistence  on  air-space,  ven- 
tilation, lavatories,  and  soon;  but  a  disease  completely  expunged  from 
the  record  by  attention  to  these  trifles  proves  the  virtue  there  maybe 
in  them. 

"  Acute  and  chronic  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  pleurisy  are  rare  dis- 
eases at  this  station,  only  three  of  pleurisy  and  two  of  pneumonia  having 
occurred  during  the  eight  years.  This  is  a  favorable  showing;  nor  is  it 
detracted  from  by  the  fact  that  four  of  the  six  deaths  are  set  down  to 
lung  affection.  Two  are  reported  as  from  congestion  of  the  lungs;  but 
intemperance  and  exposure  are  added,  materially  qualifying  the  part 
which  climate  enacted  in  the  deaths.  The  third  was  from  abscess  of  the 
lung  (latent)  in  a  soldier  prematurely  old,  and  broken  down  by  long 
courses  of  dissipation.  The  fourth  is  from  'acute  phthisis/  as  a  sequel 
to  mountain  fever.  Peritonitis  is  responsible  for  the  fifth  (particulars 
not  given),  and  penetrating  chest  wound  for  the  sixth.   .   .  . 

"In  a  tabulated  statement  of  sickness,  giving  the  monthly  ratios  per 
thousand  of  mean  strength,  average  of  eight  years,  1866-73,  the  lines 
foot  up: 


Average  mean  strength, 

153 

Pleurisy, 

2.48 

Remittent  fever, 

48.03 

Inflammation  of  lungs,  . 

1.76 

Catarrh, 

.    400.95 

Phthisis, 

.      10.76 

Quinsy 

84.51 

Acute  inflammation, 

9-2.. IS 

Laryngitis    . 

5.29 

Chronic  rheumatism, 

.       18.61 

Acute  bronchitis,     . 

13.05 

Total  climatic  disease,     . 

G80.44 

Chronic  bronchitis,     . 

2.42 

"  From  the  above  it  is  seen  that  catarrh,  numerically  considered,  is 
pre-eminently  the  disease  of  the  station,  four  out  of  every  ten  men  being 
affected  annually.  It  is  difficult  to  perceive  why  March  should  exceed 
the  other  months  so  remarkably  in  its  production  of  this  disease,  unless  it 
be  attributed  to  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  caused  by  variations 
above  and  below  the  mean  temperature  of  28.51°  Fahrenheit.  April, 
May,  and  June  follow  on  the  list;  the  gradual  rise  in  the  temperature 
melts  the  snows  of  winter,  necessitating  precautions  against  damp  feet 
from  slush  and  mud,  and  furnishing  more  cases  than  the  colder  months. 
Another  cause  of  the  prominence  of  this  disease  during  the  months  of 
rising  temperature  is  the  change  which  the  warm  mid-day  hours  call  for 
in  the  soldier's  clothing:  the  extra  shirt  is  laid  aside,  and  after  sunset  a 
slight  chilliness  ushers  in  the  attack.  July,  August,  September,  and 
-October  have  less  of  these  cases,  August  notably  so. 


216  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

"  Pure  cold  seems  to  have  much  to  do  with  the  production  of  tonsilli- 
tis; December  and  January,  the  two  coldest  months,  giving  by  far  the 
largest  numbers,  although  February,  which  takes  rank  next  as  to  cold, 
gives  fewer  cases  than  the  warmer  months  that  follow,  perhaps  because 
the  variation  and  humidity  are  relatively  less.  In  this  disease  also, 
June  shows  the  effects  of  lessening  the  clothing.  In  August  and  Sep- 
tember the  disease  is  at  its  minimum.  I  believe  that  these  catarrhs 
and  quinsies  could  be  much  reduced  by  a  system  of  ventilation.  During 
four  months  of  the  year,  the  temperature  falls  below  zero  at  night.  The 
great  object  of  the  men  in  quarters  in  such  weather  is  to  keep  warm. 
The  fires  are  well  attended  to,  and  every  chink  which  admits  fresh  air, 
and  can  be  reached,  is  carefully  stopped  up.  With  the  thermometer  so 
low,  there  is  seldom  any  wind  to  promote  change  in  the  atmosphere  of 
the  room,  and  it  soon  becomes  loaded  with  exhalations  and  depressingly 
warm,  leading  the  men  to  sick-call  from  exposure  at  the  reveille;  pro- 
perlv  constructed  ventilation,  which  would  renew  the  air  and  prevent 
the  rooms  from  becoming  overheated,  would  relieve  the  sick-report  of 
many  a  case  which  burdens  it  under  existing  arrangements." 

These  remarks  are  no  less  significant  in  regard  to  family  quarters  in 
the  ordinarv  domicile  in  cold  seasons  and  climates  in  the  United 
States  generally,  than  to  soldier's  quarters. 

"  Laryngitis  appears  in  the  colder  months  and  early  spring,  and  is  un- 
known in  the  summer. 

"  Rheumatic  fever  is  scattered  over  the  months  without  reference 
to  season,  wind,  humidity,  temperature,  or  its  fluctuations.   .  .  . 

"Summer  is  the  season  for  the  remittents,  but  they  appear  during  all 
the  other  months,  except  September  and  October.  I  am  not  aware  of 
any  case  of  consumption  which  has  originated  in  this  neighborhood;  but 
although  the  country  has  been  settled  as  now  for  some  fifteen  years,  and 
several  large  families  have  been  brought  up,  the  population  is  too  scanty 
to  give  this  point  by  itself  much  weight.  The  prevailing  impression 
among  the  citizens  is  that  the  climate,  though  severe  in  the  winter,  is 
verv  beneficial  to  such  cases  of  consumption  as  are  able  to  stand  it. 
Such  ideas  among  the  people  are  usually  the  reflection  of  professional 
opinion,  and  I  state  the  above  to  indicate  what  has  probably  been  that 
of  my  predecessors  at  the  post. 

'•'Twelve  entries  of  consumption  appear  on  the  registers:  of  these,  one 
died,  as  recorded  above;  eight  were  discharged,  one  returned  to  duty, 
and  two  are  presumed  to  have  returned,  although  mutilation  of  part  of 
the  records  prevent  certainty;  at  all  events,  they  arc  not  borne  on  the 
monthly  reports  as  discharged  or  dead.  Of  the  eight  discharged,  one 
only  is  stated  to  have  originated  prior  to  entry  into  the  service;  the  other 
seven  are  reported  as  having  been  developed  in  the  line  of  duty — that  is, 
the  men,  whether  affected  with  incipient  phthisis  or  not  before  their 
arrival  in  this  climate,  were  able  to  perform  their  duty  while  at  the  post,. 


TOPOGBAPHTj   ETC.,   OF  Till',    wkstkkn    iih.iil  \m>s.  ^17 

and  broke  down  cinder  the  progress  of  the  disease  while  exposed  to  the 
climatic  influences  of  the  station.  To  the  twelve  entries  I  have  added 
in  tin-  table  a  thirteenth,  appearing  in  May,  L871,  as  a  discharge  Cor 
"debility  on  account,  of  catarrh. "  This  gives  L0.76  per  thousand  of 
mean  strength  of  eases  of  consumption  developed  at  Fort  Bridger  an- 
nually, to  such  extent  as  to  cause  withdrawal  from  duty  for  medical 
treatment,  and  8.3  per  thousand  dead  and  discharged  by  reason  of  this 
disease,  while  only  3..")  per  thousand  required  medical  treatment  in  the 
army  as  a  whole. 

"  These  figures  do  not  support  the  popular  opinion  with  regard  to 
Fort  Bridger.  Even  allowing  that  three  of  the  cases  (2.43  per  thou- 
sand) Avere  so  improved  by  the  climate  as  ultimately  to  recover,  the  same 
climate  is  responsible  for  the  attack  which  brought  them  to  the  hospital 
from  the  performance  of  duty,  and  it  is  also  responsible  for  the  death 
and  discharge  of  the  remaining  ten  (8.33  per  thousand),  while  the  tem- 
porary and  permanent  disablement  from  duty  through  such  cases  by  the 
average  climates  of  the  United  States  army  stations  is  but  3.5  per  thou- 
sand. The  rarity  of  acute  bronchial  and  pulmonary  inflammations  is  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  marked  progress  which  is  indicated  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  phthisical  cases,  and  lends  to  the  figures  of  the  latter 
greater  value  than  they  would  possess  if  presented  alone. 

"The  immunity  from  consumption  possessed,  as  a  rule,  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  elevated  lands  has  led  to  belief  in  the  curative  influence  of  a 
residence  in  such  climates,  provided  the  disease  be  in  an  incipient  stage, 
or,  as  the  people  here  say  with  more  unwitting  caution,  provided  the 
patient  is  able  to  stand  it.  The  cases  above  noted  were  in  the  incipient 
stage,  perhaps  free  from  everything  but  the  hereditary  predisposition, 
for  it  cannot  be  assumed  that  these  soldiers  were  doing  duty  while  in 
the  advanced  stages,  yet  they  were  not  able  to  stand  it.  Overheating  and 
impure  air"  (in  the  garrison),  "already  spoken  of,  no  doubt  had  an 
influence  on  the  development  of  the  cases;  but  these  facts  do  not  detract 
from  the  value  of  the  figures  in  the  question  or  causation  of  influence  of 
climate.  Bad  ventilation  and  overheating  affect  more  garrisons  than 
that  of  Fort  Bridger,  and  have  their  effect  expressed  in  the  3.5  per  thou- 
sand, while  the  excess  of  overheating,  with  its  results,  at  this  post,  is 
reflected  back  on  climate  by  the  cold  which  originates  it." 

Of  8,730  cases  of  disease  of  all  kinds  recorded  at  the  military  posts 
of  Wyoming  during  the  period  of  four  years,  1870-74,  41,  or  one  in  213, 
were  for  phthisis.  In  Montana,  for  the  same  period  there  were  recorded 
at  the  military  posts  2,742  cases,  of  which  11,  or  one  in  249.3,  were  for 
consumption.  In  the  military  posts  of  both  these  States,  the  most  pre- 
valent diseases  were  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  rheumatism  and  diarrhceal 
diseases. 

In  Idaho,  at  an  altitude  of  2,880  feet,  latitude,  43°  37'  north;  longi- 
tude, 39°  west;  the  climate  as  observed  by  Assistant  Surgeon  Geo.  P.  Ja- 


'.218  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN   HIGHLANDS. 

quett,  U.  S.  Army,1  is  generally  very  healthy.  There  are  two  seasons,  the 
wet  and  the  dry,  bnt  annual  rain-fall  is  light.  Only  a  few  cases  of  the 
common  varieties  of  disease  occurred  at  the  post:  201  during  four  years 
out  of  169  mean  strength  of  enlisted  men,  and  no  case  of  consumption. 

At  Fort  Hall,  located  in  Lincoln  Valley,  on  the  Snake  Eiver,  latitude 
43°  7'  north;  longitude,  35°  12'  west;  altitude,  4,700  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  Assistant  Surgeon  J.  T.  Pindell,  U.  S.  Army,2  describes  the 
climate  as  being  gene  rally  pleasant,  though  subject  to  wide  ranges  in- 
temperature.  Lincoln  Valley  lies  among  the  foot-hills  bordering  the 
Snake  Eiver  basin  on  the  East,  and  measures  in  its  course  from  north  to 
south  about  five  miles  in  length,  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
military  post,  one-half  mile  in  width.  It  is  well  sheltered  from  the 
cold  winds  by  the  surrounding  hills. 

Of  148  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  the  post  in  four  years,  one  was  for 
■consumption.  Kheumatism  was  the  most  prevalent  disease;  there  was 
no  disease  of  special  significance  with  regard  to  climate. 

In  latitude  46°  32'  north;  longitude  40'  west;  the  site  of  Fort  Lapwai, 
near  Lewiston,  a  town  of  about  five  hundred  inhabitants,  twenty-five 
miles  west  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  "  a  wind,  called  by  the  natives 
'  chinook/  is  prevalent  at  all  times  of  the  year.  It  comes  suddenly  with 
great  violence,  and  is  always  attended  with  a  very  great  rise  in  the  tem- 
perature. In  winter,  one  of  these  winds  has  been  known  to  commence 
blowing  in  the  evening,  at  a  time  when  there  have  been  three  or  four 
inches  of  snow  on  the  ground,  and  by  morning  not  a  trace  of  snow  could 
be  seen.  In  the  summer,  the  heat  attending  them  is  like  that  from  a 
furnace,  and  vegetation  withers  before  the  hot  blast/"  The  most  pre- 
valent diseases,  according  to  the  records  of  the  post,  are  rheumatism, 
catarrh,  and  bronchitis.  Of  469  cases  of  all  kinds  recorded  in  four  years, 
there  was  one  only  from  consumption. 

"  The  climate  of  Utah4  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  Northwestern  Texas 
and  New  Mexico,  and  is  agreeable  most  of  the  year  round,  excepting  for 
a  month  or  so  in  winter.  The  temperature  in  winter  seldom  drops  to 
zero,  and  only  two  observations  below  that  point  have  been  taken  since 
the  post  was  established.  The  humidity  reaches  its  maximum  in  the 
spring  months,  when  the  atmosphere  is  almost  saturated.  This  arises 
from  the  winds  at  this  season  passing  over  Great  Salt  Lake  from  the 

1  Fort  Boise.     Op.  cit.,  p.  457. 

2  Op.  cit.,  p.  505. 

3  Report  of  Assistant  Surgeons  C.  R.  Greenleaf  and  George  C.  Douglass,  U.  S. 
Army.     Op.  cit.,  p.  57. 

4  Reported  by  Surgeon  E.  P.  Vollum  from  Camp  Douglas,  situated  on  a 
plateau  at  the  base  of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  two  and  a  half  miles  east  of  the 
business  portion  of  Salt  Lake  City,  at  an  altitude  of  730  feet  above  it.  The  alti- 
tude of  the  sun-dial  is  4,904.  Latitude,  40°  46'  2"  north;  longitude,  35°  west. 
Op.  cit.,  p.  332. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    BTO.,   OP   THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS.  I'!'.* 

northward,  bringing  the  watery  vapors,  not  only  from  thai  greal  bod 
water,  bu1  also  from  the  regions  beyond,  supplied  by  the  southwesterly 
onrrents  thai  are  seen  to  pass  over  at  a  great  altitude,  most  of  the 
winter  long.  Greal  Sail  Lake,  with  a  shore-line,  exclusive  of  offsets,  of 
\.".'l  miles,  is  vasl  enough  to  furnish  a  horizon,  in  places,  like  the  ocean 
itself;  and  being  at  an  altitude  of  4,200  feet,  some  travellers  have  im- 
agined that  on  its  shore  was  to  be  found  the  most  peculiar  and  unique 
el i mate  on  the  face  of  the  glohe,  combining,  as  it  does,  the  light  pure  air 
of  the  neighboring  snow-capped  mountains  with  that  of  the  briny  lake 
itself;  and  it  is  fancied  by  many  that  at  certain  points  one  may  inhale 
an  atmosphere  salty  and  marine,  like  that  found  on  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic,  happily  combined  with  a  cool  fresh  mountain  air,  like  the 
breath  of  the  Alps  themselves.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  marine  vegeta- 
tion about  the  shores,  however,  there  are  none  of  the  pleasant  odors  to 
be  found,  as  on  the  sea- shore.  For  several  years  past,  the  snow  has 
seldom  fallen  to  a  greater  depth  than  a  foot,  and  it  soon  melts  away, 
while  up  to  18G0  a  fall  of  three  feet  was  not  uncommon,  with  sleighing 
for  a  month  or  so  at  a  time.  No  tide-gauge  observations  have  ever  been 
made  to  determine  the  change  in  the  level  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  but  the 
inhabitants  about  the  shore  estimate  that  it  has  risen  about  one  foot  a 
year  during  the  past  ten  years,  which  change  of  level  has  been  caused  by 
the  steady  increase  of  the  rainfall  of  the  country,  as  well  as  the  swelling 
of  the  streams  flowing  into  the  lake,  that  drain  about  one-half  of  the 
Territory,  most  of  them  flowing  from  the  mining  districts,  where  the 
tunnelling,  excavations,  blasting,  etc.,  tap  the  mountains  in  thousands  of 
places  wdiere  water  never  flowed  before,  for  every  mine  becomes  a  source 
of  wrater,  sometimes  in  large  amount.  The  increase  in  the  atmospheric 
humidity  is  no  doubt  in  large  part  caused  by  the  multiplication,  of  late 
years,  of  the  irrigating  canals,  which  expose  an  immense  area  of  water 
for  evaporation.  This  is  evident  in  many  places  by  the  increased  fertility 
of  the  lands  and  increased  greenness  of  the  landscape,  and  if  it  continues 
the  necessities  of  agriculture  will  soon  be  met,  which  in  fact  is  the  case 
at  present,  were  the  annual  amount,  about  twenty  inches,  well  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  year. 

"  The  spring  begins  about  the  middle  of  March,  and  it  is  a  splendid 
season.  The  atmosphere  becomes  as  clear  as  a  diamond,  distances  vanish 
as  by  enchantment,  and  Great  Salt  Lake,  twenty  miles  off,  appearing  like 
a  broad  band  of  indigo,  studded  with  mountain-islands  set  on  its  sur- 
face like  glittering  jewels,  seems  but  an  hour's  ride  away.  The  city, 
which  is  a  vast  orchard  dotted  with  houses  half  buried  in  the  foliage,  be- 
comes a  mass  of  color,  variegated  by  clumps  of  the  bright  blossoms  of 
the  peach,  pear,  apple,  plum,  and  apricot,  mingled  with  the  tender 
colors  of  the  willow,  cotton-wood,  and  mulberry.  The  bright  green 
surface  of  the  valley  follows  the  snow-line  as  it  rises  up  the  mountain 
sides,  leaving  a  strip  of  russet  color  between. 


220  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

"  The  summer  may  be  said  to  be  hot,  dry,  and  dusty.  The  mercury 
seldom  rises  above  95%  though  once,  in  August,  1871,  it  reached  105°, 
and  the  range  is  about  30°  during  the  hottest  weather,  which  is  necessary 
to  insure  the  cool  breezes  found  so  refreshing  at  night  after  the  heat  of 
the  day.  At  this  season,  the  atmosphere  is  yellow  and  brassy,  and  the 
flying  dust  clouds,  from  the  parched  desert  surfaces  hundreds  of  miles 
away,  pass  over  the  highest  mountains  and  thicken  the  air,  and  while 
the  valley  may  be  regarded  as  an  oasis,  yet  at  this  season  it  furnishes  its 
quota  of  dust,  and  the  teamsters  and  road  people  coming  in  from  a 
journey  suffer  from  ophthalmia,  irritative  catarrh,  and  cough,  caused  by 
impalpable  particles  of  alkaline  matter  that  fill  the  air. 

"  The  autumn,  on  account  of  the  high  winds,  is  the  most  unpleasant 
season  of  the  year,  and  the  dust-storms  often  obscure  the  noonday  sun, 
and  fill  every  nook  and  corner  with  dirt,  from  which  there  is  no  escape; 
but  as  the  season  advances,  the  aerial  movements  dwindle  down  to  the 
little  spiral  dust-whirls  that  may  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  the  valley,  at 
the  same  time  furnishing  a  curious  spectacle.  In  October,  the  atmo. 
sphere,  crisp  and  bracing,  clears  up  again  as  in  spring,  and  the  land- 
scape softens  with  the  rich  "browns,  russets,  and  scarlets  of  the  dying 
vegetation,  which  reaches  high  up,  and  mingles  with  the  high  rocks  at 
the  tops  of  the  mountains,  soon  to  be  overlaid,  however,  in  these  ele- 
vated situations,  by  the  first  snows  of  the  season. 

"  The  new-comer  for  a  short  time  feels  a  difficulty  of  breathing,  aris- 
ing from  the  altitude,  and  the  same  trouble  is  often  seen  with  horses, 
and  occasionally  travellers  speak  of  feeling  giddy  and  unseated  from  the 
same  cause.  About  once  in  ten  years  an  epidemic  of  "  mountain  fever  " 
appears  to  a  considerable  extent  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions,, 
including  Utah.  Its  last  appearance  was  in  the  fall  and  winter  of  1871 
-72.  It  is  a  malarial  fever  commencing  as  an  intermittent,  passing 
on  into  a  remittent,  then  into  a  typhoid  condition.  It  may  often  be  cut 
short  by  prompt  large  doses  of  quinine;  but  after  the  typhoid  symp- 
toms set  in,  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  typhoid  fever,  and  so  treated. 
The  mortality  is  often  high,  but  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  attention 
a  patient  receives  in  the  early  stages. 

"  Special  report  on  some  of  the  diseases  of  Utah. — Regarding  the  prin- 
cipal diseases  of  Salt  Lake  valley,  and  the  influence  of  the  climate  and  the 
altitude  on  lung  troubles  especially,  I  will  summarize  my  views  briefly, 
as  follows:  The  adult  population  are  as  robust  as  any  within  the  borders, 
of  the  United  States,  and  there  is  a  fair  number  of  cases  cf  extreme  old 
age.  The  weight  of  sickness  falls  upon  the  children,  who  furnish  not  less 
than  two-thirds  of  all  the  deaths,  most  of  which  occur  under  five  years  of 
age.  Looking  over  the  registers  of  the  undertakers  at  Salt  Lake  City,  I 
find  the  causes  of  death  classified  under  these  headings: 

"  '  Males,  females,  adults,  children,  country,  transient,  resident,  bow- 
els, lungs,  brain,  fever,  inflammations,   child-bed,   still-born,  old   age, 


TOPOGRAPHY.    BTO..    OF   THE    WE8TEBN    BIGHLAND8. 


221 


polygamy,  monogamy,  killed  accidentally,  dropsy,  debility,  and  sun- 
dries;' the  lust  beading  meaning  uudassiiini.  Tim  following  uhstnu-t 
from  the  undertakers' 1 ks  shows  the  percentage  of  deaths  of  the  dis- 
eases mentioned  to  the  whole  number  of  deaths  for  the  years  quoted  np 
to  September,  1874: 


Diseases  <>r  the 

1870 

1871. 

L872. 

187:5. 

1874. 

Bowels 

20.10 
23.34 
12.10 

23.30 
28.56 

5.24 
11.13 

26.44 
19.55 

5.28 
10.24 

21.15 

20.00 

6.87 

13.20 

10  87 

Lungs 

Brain 

26.23 
8  22 

Fever  

12.40 

"  The  figures  of  the  registers  show  that  the  male  deaths  exceed  the  fe- 
male in  number  about  50  per  cent.  I  cannot  get  the  relative  proportion. 
The  polygamous  children  are  as  healthy  as  the  monogamous,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  deaths  is  about  the  same;  the  difference  is  rather  in  favor  of  the 
polygamous  children,  who  are  generally,  in  the  city  especially,  situated 
more  comfortably  as  to  residence,  food,  air,  and  clothing,  their  parents 
being  better  off  than  those  in  monogamy.  It  is  perhaps  too  early  to 
express  any  mature  opinions  as  to  the  influence  of  polygamy,  as  con- 
trasted with  monogamy,  on  the  health  or  constitutional  or  mental  char- 
acter of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  as  seen  in  Utah;  but  as  far  as  the  experi- 
ence has  gone,  which  is  long  enough  to  furnish  quite  a  population, 
ranging  from  twenty-five  years  downward,  no  difference  can  be  detected 
in  favor  of  one  or  the  other.  .  .  . 

"Referring  to  the  undertakers' headings  mentioned  above,  'bowels' 
covers  chiefly  the  common  bowel  complaints  of  children  that  are  caused 
principally  by  exposure  to  changes  of  temperature,  dabbling  in  cold 
"water,  poor,  coarse  and  inappropriate  food  while  sick,  lime  and  alka- 
line drinking-water,  and  neglect  of  medical  attendance  and  proper  nurs- 
ing. Under  the  heading  of  l  lungs '  are  grouped  phthisis,  pneumonia, 
pleurisy,  pleuro-pneumonia,  and  bronchitis. 

"  Regarding  the  influence  of  the  altitude  and  climate  of  Utah  on 
phthisis,  it  may  be  set  down  as  favorable.  My  experience  here  with 
that  disease  during  the  past  four  years  has  been  very  small,  and  my 
testimony  on  the  subject  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  in  favor  of  the 
climate.  At  Camp  Douglas,  my  observations  have  been  confined  to  a  few 
incipient  cases  among  the  troops  who  came  from  a  distance  with  it  and 
were  discharged,  to  an  officer's  wife  who  inherited  it  from  her  father, 
and  who  took  cold  at  a  ball  when  far  advanced  with  it,  and  passed  rap- 
idly on  to  the  last  stages,  returned  home  and  died;  and  to  the  case  of 
my  assistant,  Dr.  John  E.  Spencer,  which  I  will  mention.  He  inherited 
the  disease  from  his  father,  developed  it  by  overzeal  in  hospital  and 


222  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

dissecting-room  ;  and  he  sought  employment  in  the  arm}',  with  a  view 
of  getting  stationed  somewhere  in  the  interior,  elevated  region  of  coun- 
try. Circumstances  brought  him  to  this  place.  "When  he  reported,  he 
was  pale,  thin,  and  feeble,  having  some  time  before  had  serious  haemop- 
tysis; his  pulse  was  small  and  rapid,  and  his  respiration  hurried  and 
difficult,  and  a  constant  harassing  cough  that  brought  up  considerable 
expectoration.  A  walk  of  a  thousand  yards  would  require  him  to  lie 
down  to  recover  his  wasted  strength.  His  lungs  were  both  consoli- 
dated at  the  top;  there  was  a  cavity  of  some  size  in  the  upper  lobe  of  the 
eft  lung  that  gave  out  a  rattling,  sibilant  sound  that  could  be  heard  a 
short  distance  from  him.  The  bracing  weather  of  the  fall  coming  on 
soon  after  his  arrival,  he  commenced  to  practise  a  little  horseback  riding, 
and  before  the  winter  was  well  advanced  he  could  ride  to  Salt  Lake  City, 
three  miles  off,  and  back,  with  little  fatigue,  spending  the  remainder  of 
the  day  in  comparative  quiet.  By  the  following  spring,  though  the  win- 
ter was  open,  wet,  and  changeable,  the  cavity  in  his  lung  was  closed  up, 
and  gave  no  sound  to  the  ear  on  the  chest,  and  the  tubular  rales  had 
mostlv  ceased,  and  his  face  took  on  the  color  of  health;  he  increased 
some  twenty  pounds  in  weight,  and  expressed  himself  as  being  as  well 
as  he  had  ever  been,  his  cough  having  subsided  to  a  minimum  condi- 
tion of  a  hack,  at  long  intervals,  brought  on  by  a  bit  of  food,  flying 
dust,  or  laughter.  During  this  time,  he  adopted  no  treatment  whatever, 
and  only  occasionally  took  a  glass  of  whiskey  as  a  tonic.  Having  occa- 
sion to  go  to  Omaha  a  year  and  a  half  afterward,  he  contracted  measles 
while  there,  and  returned  with  his  cough  re-established  and  expectorat- 
ing freely.  The  cavity  in  the  left  lung  re-opened,  and  his  general  con- 
dition was  nearly  as  bad  as  it  was  when  he  first  reported.  Exposure  at 
his  door,  when  half  dressed  one  night  to  respond  to  a  patient's  call,  gave 
him  a  chill  that  was  followed  the  next  day  by  nearly  a  fatal  haemopty- 
sis. Fearing  the  influence  of  the  coming  winter,  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Santa  Barbara,  California,  and  there  regained  the  good  condi- 
tion he  enjoyed  at  this  place;  but  he  allowed  his  energy  to  run  away 
with  him,  he  accepted  two  offices  under  the  corporation,  and  after  an 
occasion  of  overwork  and  zeal  connected  with  his  duties,  he  had  a  hem- 
orrhage and  died. 

"  During  my  stay  here,  I  have  travelled  over  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  Territory,  and  have  made  quite  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
people  of  all  classes  and  degrees,  and  have  yet  to  learn  of  a  case 
of  phthisis  that  originated  in  the  country,  and  was  unconnected  with 
hereditary  transmission.  Cases  of  this  kind  are  sometimes  seen  in  chil- 
dren, the  offspring  of  strumous  and  consumptive  parents.  As  I  have 
formerly  reported,  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  local  physicians,  as  well  as  of 
the  people  generally,  that  if  a  case  comes  here  in  the  incipient  stage, 
and  is  well  circumstanced  for  comforts,  it  will  get  well  spontane- 
ously from  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  altitude  and  the  inland  dry  char- 


Tor<)(iK.viMiv,   inc.,  «>i     mm:   w  istkkn  iiigiila_ni>-.  l'l':; 

aoter  of  the  atmosphere.     It  is  the  boast  of  the  people  that  this  le 
a  consumptive  country,  which  is  my  opinion  decidedly.     <>n  tin-  other 
hand,  it  is  believed   that   if  a  patient  comes  here  in  the  latter  sts 
of  the  disease,  the  atmosphere  is  too  rare  to  give  proper  support,  ami 

that  the  ease  will  be  hastened  to  a  termination  more  speedily  than  on 
the  sea-coast." 

"Altitude  is  doubtless  an  important  element  among  the  means  of 
relief  and  cure  of  phthisis,  hut  it  should  not  be  too  great.  The  highest 
places  among  the  Rocky  Mountains  have  seemed  to  have  a  fatal  influ- 
ence  on  some  cases  thai  have  been  brought  indirectly  to  my  attention. 
The  best  level  has  vet  to  be  determined,  as  the  experience  of  travellers 
over  the  Union  Pacific  I tailroad  proves.  Patients  of  this  class  frequently 
pass  over  the  road  eastward  and  westward,  and  they  often  sink  on  the 
way,  in  consequence  of  the  strain  put  upon  their  breathing  by  the  rare 
atmosphere  of  the  highest  places  where  they  suffer  intensely  from  op- 
pression and  difficult  breathing.  The  porters  on  the  sleeping  cars  of 
the  road  have  become  accustomed  to  such  cases,  and  their  common  re- 
mark is,  if  such  and  such  a  case  passes  safely  over  the  divide  or  highest 
point,  at  Sherman,  which  is  8,2-42  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  they 
will  reach  the  end  of  their  journey,  a  number  of  such  patients  having 
died  at  that  point. 

"  While  at  Fort  Crook,  California,  in  1849,  I  saw  quite  a  number  of 
persons  in  the  neighboring  country  who  professed  to  have  been  cured  of 
phthisis  by  crossing  the  plains  on  horseback;  and  from  a  knowledge 
of  their  habits  and  the  condition  of  that  journey,  I  then  conceived  that 
the  best  treatment  known  for  consumption  was  a  year  of  steady,  daily 
horseback-riding  in  a  mountainous  country,  and  a  diet  of  corn-bread  and 
bacon  with  a  moderate  quantity  of  whiskey;  and  I  may  say  that  my  ex- 
perience has  taught  me  nothing  better  since. 

"  The  beneficial  influence  of  this  climate  on  asthma  is  decided,  and 
deserves  a  prominent  mention.  It  is  also  the  boast  of  the  people,  as  well 
as  the  physicians,  that  asthma  cannot  exist  here  exceptiug  under  a  re- 
lieved and  modified  condition,  which  I  think  is  the  case.  .  .  . 

"  Bronchitis  appears  in  a  mild  form  during  the  wet  and  thawing 
periods  of  spring  and  fall;  but  it  always  yields  to  treatment,  and  I  have 
heard  of  no  deaths  from  it. 

"  Pneumonia  may  be  regarded  as  a  disease  most  liable  to  be  produced 
by  the  conditions  of  the  climate,  and  it  doubtless  makes  up  the  bulk  of 
cases  reported  as  lung  disease  on  the  death  register  of  the  city  under- 
takers." 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  south  of  Salt  Lake  City  '  "the  atmo- 
sphere is  extremely  dry.     The  amount   of  rainfall   is  very  small:  the 

1  From  Post  Beaver;  latitude,  38°  16'  north;  longitude,  34°  50'  30"  west;  6,^00 
feet  elevation,  Assistant  Surgeon  F.  W.  Elbrey.     Op.  cit.,  p.  222. 


'224:  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE   WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 

number  of  cloudy  days  in  the  year  very  few.  The  prevailing  winds — 
and  the  winds  are  frequent  and  of  great  force,  driving  before  them 
clouds  of  dust — blow  from  the  southwest  and  northwest.  Owing  to  the 
rapid  radiation  of  the  earth's  heat,  the  variation  between  the  temperature 
of  the  day  and  that  of  the  night  is  always  great,  often  amounting  to  40° 
and  rarely  less  than  20°.  Not  often  does  the  thermometer  rise  higher 
than  90°  in  summer,  or  sink  to  zero  in  winter.  Cool  nights  are  the  rule 
in  summer,  and  cold  nights  even  to  freezing  begin  in  September  and 
continue  till  June.  Indeed,  no  month  in  the  year  can  be  counted  upon 
as  being  surely  free  from  frosts.  The  climate  is  healthful,  owing  to  the 
diurnal  variations  in  the  temperature;  catarrhal  affections  are  of  com- 
paratively frequent  occurrence.  Phthisis,  when  fully  established,  is  not 
at  all  benefited  by  a  residence  here;  but  phthisis  does  not  frequently 
originate  here." 

Of  432  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  this  post  during  four  years'  obser- 
vation, 1870-1874,  five  were  for  consumption. 

In  Dakota,  the  climate  is  cold  and  dry,  and  high  winds  common. 
Catarrh  and  bronchitis  are  among  the  most  common  diseases. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Eed  Eiver  of  the  North,  about  1,700  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  climate  is  less  severe  than  here,  "  phthisis  pul- 
monalis,  pneumonia,  and  most  other  lung  diseases  are  rare.  The  only 
diseases  which  seem  of  endemic  origin,  are  a  peculiar  pharyngitis  and 
tonsillitis,  and  asthma,  which  are  usually  made  worse  when  already  ex- 
isting, and  sometimes  brought  on  when  not  before  known  to  exist.  Both 
of  these  diseases  may  have  their  origin  in  the  fungus  of  the  wild  grasses 
of  the  prairie  surrounding  the  post  (Fort  Abercrombie),  through  this 
view  has  not  been  experimentally  established."  ' 

Of  6,014  cases  of  disease  recorded  in  the  ten  army  posts  during  the 
four  years,  1870-74,  26,  or  1  in  231,  were  for  consumption.  The  most 
prevalent  diseases  were  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  diarrhoea  and  dysentery. 

In  New  Mexico,  the  Ojo  Caliente  Springs,  Taos  County,  which  appear 
to  have  been  known  from  the  first  settlement  of  that  country  by  the 
Spaniards,  have  recently  been  made  accessible  by  Denver  and  Eio  Grande 
Eailroad.  They  are  situated  at  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  twelve  miles  distant  by  stage  from  Baranca,  a  station  on  the 
railway.  The  flow  of  the  water  is  1,000  gallons  a  minute,  and  the  tem- 
perature 122°  F.     One  pint  contains  (Prof.  O.  C.  Marsh): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,        .....  11.440 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,      .....  0.158 

Carbonate  of  iron,        ......  0.737 

Carbonate  of  lime,                .....  0.303 

1  Assistant  Surgeon  W.  H.  Gardner.  Report  from  Fort  Abercrombie.  Op. 
cit.,  p.  390. 


TOPOGRATIIY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    WESTBBS    BZOHLAITDS.  225 

Grains. 
Carbonate  of  lithia,       ......  0.016 

Chloride  of  sodium,  .....  0.772 

Sulphate  of  potassa,       ......  0.376 

Sulphate  of  soda,      ......  0.991 

Silica,      ........  0.168 

Total, 16.945 

The  Agua  Caliente  Springs,  in  Mesilla  County,  are  also  probably  des- 
tined to  become,  ere  many  years,  a  deservedly  popular  resort.  Dr.  T. 
Antisell,  geologist  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition,  gives  the  follow- 
ing description: 

"  Between  the  Mimbres  and  Ojo  de  la  Vacca,  and  close  to  trail  lead- 
ing from  the  former  to  the  copper  mines,  is  that  remarkable  spring 
known  as  the  'Agua  Caliente.'  It  lies  about  five  miles  from  the  river; 
where  the  springs  issue  is  a  mound  or  bank  of  tufaceous  deposit,  formed 
by  the  overflow  of  the  spring  at  some  former  time,  previous  to  the  side- 
channels  being  formed.  This  mound  is  twenty  feet  above  the  valley 
level,  and  two  and  one-half  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
spring,  showing  that  the  spring,  by  the  deposit  of  carbonate  of  lime 
from  its  waters,  has  formed  a  basin-wall  for  itself,  and  allowed  its  level 
to  be  raised  above  the  surrounding  valley.  This  calcareous  basin  is 
twenty-five  feet  across  and  does  not  show  bottom,  except  around  the 
edges,  which  are  rocky;  a  twelve-foot  pole  thrust  into  the  middle  did 
not  find  bottom.  The  temperature  of  the  spring  was  130°  Fahr.  at  the 
surface.  From  one  point  below  bubbles  of  gas  arose  in  great  abundance 
(carbonic  acid).     The  water  is  agreeable  to  the  taste."  ' 

In  Colorado,  the  Middle  Park  Hot  Springs,  situated  in  Grand 
County,  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  midst  of 
magnificent  scenery,  are  rapidly  coming  into  favor.  They  are  accessi- 
ble by  stage  and  horseback,  about  sixty  miles  from  Central  City,  on  the 
Colorado  Central  Railroad;  or  by  one  hundred  miles  stage  and  horseback 
from  Golden  City,  on  the  same  railroad.  "The  favorite  route,"  as 
given  by  Walton,3  "  is  by  the  way  of  Berthoud  Pass.  Having  arrived  at 
Georgetown,  the  tourists  procure  saddle  and  pack  horses,  and  guides. 
The  first  day's  journey  will  be  over  the  summit  of  the  range,  eleven 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  through  a  dense  forest  of 
timber  for  fourteen  miles  beyond,  to  the  head  of  the  park.  Here  camp 
is  usually  made.  The  next  day's  ride  is  down  an  open  valley  or  arm  of 
the  park,  following  for  some  miles  the  course  of  Fraser's  River.  The 
route  by  South  Boulder  Pass  is  tedious  and  difficult,  the  road  passing 
over  the  extreme  summit  of  the  range,  more  than  12,000  feet  above  the 
sea,  where   snow-storms  are  not  unusual   in   July  and  August.     The 

1  T.  Antisell,  M.D.  "  Government  Exploration  for  Pacific  Railroad,"  vol.  vii., 
-p.  156. 

s  Op.  cit  ,  p.  306. 
15 


226 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 


James  Peak  route  is  one  of  the  most  interesting,  the  road  winding 
around  the  mountain,  one  of  the  highest  points  in  the  range,  and  the 
the  ascent  easily  made.  All  the  roads,  however,  after  crossing  the 
mountains,  meet  together  in  the  valley  of  the  Fraser  Eiver.  Thence 
the  road  is  a  pleasant  carriage-drive  along  the  meadow-like  valleys,  with 
timbered  ridges  or  table-lands  to  the  right  and  left.  The  grass  is  of  luxu- 
riant growth  and  great  variety.  Clover  of  several  kinds,  and  the  blue 
flowering  flax,  are  seen  everywhere.  All  through  late  spring  and  early 
summer,  the  prairies  are  bright  with  flowers,  and  the  air  laden  with 
their  fragrance.  Delightful  camping  places  are  seen  all  along  the  route, 
and  days  or  weeks  can  be  whiled  away  in  Arcadian  simplicity  and  en- 
joyment. 

"  Arrived  at  the  Springs,  there  are  several  houses,  a  little  trading  es- 
tablishment, and  a  primitive  blacksmith-shop.  The  springs,  many  in 
number,  are  grouped  together  on  an  embankment,  three  hundred  feet 
from  Grand  River,  and  about  thirty  feet  above  it.  The  stream  formed 
by  the  united  overflow  of  the  springs  is  from  three  to  five  inches  deep, 
and  four  to  six  feet  wide.  The  flow  is  probably  much  greater  than 
that  recorded.  The  sources  vary  in  temperature  from  111°  to  116°  Fahr. 
Curiously  enough,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  a  cold  sulphur 
spring \" 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  soda 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  sodium. . 
Sulphate  of  potassa. . . 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

Iron  and  ammonia. 

Lithia 

Silicic  acid 

Total 

Gases. 
Carbonic  acid 


No.  3.    97^°  F. 
E.  J.  Mallet. 


Grains. 
3.687 


No.  5.    115°  F. 
E.  J.  Mallet. 


Grains. 

4.921 
0.241 
0.460 


1.661 

1.745 

0.129 

0.119 

2.191 

1.231 

0.656 

traces 

traces 

traces 

0.077 

6.164 

8.401 

8.881 

Cubic  inches. 

Cubic  inches. 

2.22 

2.50 

Manitou  Springs,  Manitou,  El  Paso  County,  five  miles  west  by  stage 
from  Colorado  Springs  station,  on  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railroad, 
6,529  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  within  view  of  Pike's  Peak. 
No  analysis  of  this  water  accessible;  but  from  an  analysis  of  the  salts, 


TOPOOBAPHT,    KTO.,   OF    ill  1:    WESTERN    EIGH LANDS. 


227 


obtained  by  boiling  down  an  unknown  quantity,  T.  M.  Drown,  of  Phila- 
delphia, gives  the  following  percentage: 


Bicarbonate  of  soda, 
Bicarbonate  of  magnesia, 
Bicarbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  potassium, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 


Qrains. 

24.01 
8.89 
15.62 
10.01 
36.651 
4.78 

100.00 


Pagosa  Springs,  in  Conejos  County,  from  Del  Norte,  a  station  on 
Del  Norte  Branch  of  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railroad.  Hot  purgative 
waters,  said  to  resemble  the  famous  Carlsbad  of  Bohemia.  One  pint 
contains  (140"  Fahr.): 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Carbonate  of  lithia, 
Carbonate  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  sodium. 
Sulphate  of  potassa,     . 
Sulphate  of  soda, 

Silica,     ..... 
Organic  matter,     .... 


Grains. 

0.342 

0.353 

4,300 

0.051 

2.132 

0.519 

.       16.146 

0.415 

trace. 

Total, 


24.258 


Rocky  Mountains  Springs,  Boulder  County,  twelve  miles  from 
Jamestown,  a  station  on  railroad  from  Denver  to  Boulder  City.  Calcic- 
aperient  and  chalybeate.     One  pint  contains  (C.  T.  Jackson): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Carbonate  of  iron, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 
Iodide  and  bromide  of  sodium, 
Silicate  of  soda, 

Total, 


Grains. 
0.474 
0.049 
5.414 
0.362 
0.620 

13.075 
0.162 
0.500 

20.656 


Carbonic  acid  gas,  amount  undetermined. 

Idaho  Hot  Springs,  Clear  Creek  County,  Col.,  Colorado  Division  of 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  from  Denver,  thirty-eight  miles  from  Denver. 
One  pint  contains  (85°  to  115°  Fahr.     J.  G.  Dohle): 


2-2$ 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WESTERN    HIGHLANDS. 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  iron,  . 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnesium. 
Chloride  of  calcium. 
Sulphate  of  soda, 
Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Silicate  of  soda, 

Total, 


Grains. 
3.85 
0.36 
0.52 
1.19 
0.52 

trace. 

trace. 
3.67 
2.34 
0.43 
0.51 

13.39 


Canon  City  Springs.  Canon  City,  Fremont  County.  Station  on 
Pueblo  Branch  of  Denver  and  Eio  Grande  Eailroad,  one  hundred  and 
sixtv-one  miles  from  Denver.    Mild  alkaline,  and  warm : 


One  pint  contains. 

Iron  Duke. 
Prof.  Leon. 

Little  Ute. 
Prof.  Leon. 

Hot  Springs.  102°  F. 
Prof.  Leon. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda 

Grains. 

9.598 
1.824 
trace. 
4.124 
trace. 
10.373 
1.524 

Grains. 

9.548 
1.749 

trace. 
2.812 
trace. 

14.747 
1.513 

Grains. 
9.148 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

1.599 

Carbonate  of  lithia 

trace. 

4.086 

trace. 

2,264 

9.910 

Total 

27.443 

30.369 

27.007 

Chalk  Creek  Hot  Springs,   Chaffee  County,   P.    0.    Xathrop,   Col. 
Temperature,  130°  F.     One  pint  contains  (Prof.  G-.  E.  Patrick): 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  potassa. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  lime, 
Chloride  of  potassium, 
Sulphate  of  soda,  . 
Silicate  of  soda, 
Silica, 
Lithia,    . 
Organic  matter,     . 

Total, 


Grains. 
0.016 
0.078 
0.244 
0.079 
0.771 
0.324 
0.254 
trace, 
trace. 

1.766 


Carlisle  Springs   and   Parnassus   Springs,  South  Pueblo,   Pueblo 
County,  are  good  alkaline  waters  with  some  chalybeate  properties. 


TOPOOKAi'iiv,    ETC.,    OF   THE    WESTEBX    BIGHLANDS.  l'^'.* 

Port**  Springs,  near  Denver,  are  sulphurous-chalybeate.  One  pint 
contains  (Prof,  B.J.  Mallett,  Jr.): 

Solids.  drains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,             ......  0.726 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,           .....  0.124 

Carbonate  of  lime,           ......  1.285 

Chloride  of  sodium,    ......  O.GGG 

Chloride  of  magnesium,               .....  0.142 

Sulphate  of  potassa     ......  0.037 

Sulphate  of  soda,  .......  3.442 

Sulphate  of  sodium,     ......  0.238 

Silicate  of  soda,      .......  0.112 

Oxide  of  iron    .......  0.187 

Ammonia,             .......  trace 

Total,        ........  0.959 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  undetermined  quantities. 

South  Park  Springs,  Park  County,  on  the  South  Platte  River, 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  park,  eight  to  ten  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  surrounded  by  magnificent  scenery,  are  alkaline. 

The  American  Geysers,  in  Wyoming,  though  with  medical  pro- 
perties as  yet  undefined,  are  among  the  grandest  springs  in  the  world. 
As  described  by  Gen'l  H.  D.  Washburn,  in  Scribner's  Monthly,  in 
1871: 

"Our  search  for  new  wonders  leading  us  across  the  Fire  Hall  River, 
we  ascended  a  gentle  incrusted  slope,  and  came  suddenly  upon  a  large 
oval  aperture  with  scalloped  edges,  the  diameters  of  which  were  eighteen 
and  twenty-five  feet,  the  sides  corrugated  and  covered  with  a  grayish- 
white  siliceous  deposit,  which  was  distinctly  visible  at  the  depth  of  one 
hundred  feet  below  the  surface.  No  water  could  be  discovered,  but  we 
could  distinctly  hear  it  gurgling  and  boiling  at  a  great  distance  below. 
Suddenly  it  began  to  rise,  boiling  and  spluttering  and  sending  out  huge 
masses  of  steam,  causing  a  general  stampede  of  our  company,  driving  us 
some  distance  from  our  point  of  observation.  When  within  about  forty 
feet  of  the  surface,  it  became  stationary,  and  we  returned  to  look  down 
upon  it.  It  was  foaming  and  surging  at  a  terrible  rate,  occasionally 
emitting  small  jets  of  hot  water  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  orifice.  All 
at  once  it  seemed  seized  with  a  fearful  spasm,  and  rose  with  incredible 
rapidity,  hardly  affording  us  time  to  flee  to  a  safe  distance,  when  it  burst 
from  the  orifice  with  terrific  momentum,  rising  in  a  column  the  full  size 
of  this  immense  aperture  to  the  height  of  sixty  feet;  and  through  and 
out  of  the  apex  of  this  vast  aqueous  mass  five  or  six  lesser  jets,  or  round 
columns  of  water,  varying  in  size  from  six  to  fifteen  inches  in  diameter, 
were  projected  to  the  marvellous  height  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet. 
These  lesser  jets,  so  much  higher  than  the  main  column,  and  shooting 
through  it,  doubtless  proceed  from  auxiliary  pipes  leading  into  the  prin- 


230  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE   WESTERN   HIGHLANDS. 

cipal  orifice  near  the  bottom,  where  the  explosive  force  is  greater.  If 
the  theory,  that  water  by  constant  boiling  becomes  explosive  when  freed 
from  air  be  true,  this  theory  rationally  accounts  for  all  irregularities  in 
the  eruption  of  the  geysers. 

' '  This  grand,  eruption  continued  for  twenty  minutes,  and  was  the  most 
magnificent  sight  we  ever  witnessed.  We  were  standing  on  the  side  of 
the  geyser  nearest  the  sun,  the  gleams  of  which  filled  the  column  of 
sparkling  water  and  spray  with  myriads  of  rainbows,  whose  arches  were 
constantly  changing,  dipping,  and  fluttering  hither  and  thither,  and  dis- 
appearing only  to  be  succeeded  by  others,  again  and  again,  amid  the  aque- 
ous column,  while  the  minute  globules  into  which  the  spent  jets  were 
diffused  when  falling  sparkled  like  a  shower  of  diamonds,  and  around 
every  shadow  which  the  denser  clouds  of  vapor,  interrupting  the  sun's 
rays  cast  upon  the  column,  could  be  seen  a  luminous  circle  radiant  with 
all  the  colors  of  the  prism,  and  resembling  the  halo  of  glory  repre- 
sented in  paintings  encircling  the  head  of  the  divinity.  All  that  we  had 
previously  seen  seemed  tame  in  comparison  with  the  perfect  grandeur  and 
beauty  of  this  display.  Two  of  these  wonderful  eruptions  occurred  dur- 
ing the  twenty-two  hours  we  remained  in  the  valley.  This  geyser  we 
named  the  'giantess.' 

"A  hundred  yards  distant  from  the  'giantess'  was  a  siliceous  cone, 
very  symmetrical  but  slightly  corrugated  upon  its  exterior  surface,  three 
feet  in  height  and  five  feet  in  diameter  at  its  base,  and  having  an  oval 
orifice  twenty-four  by  thirty-six  feet  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter, 
with  scalloped  edges.  Not  one  of  our  company  supposed  it  was  a  geyser; 
and  among  so  many  wonders  it  had  almost  escaped  notice.  While  we 
were  at  breakfast  upon  the  morning  of  our  departure,  a  column  of  water, 
entirely  filling  the  crater,  shot  from  it,  which,  by  actual  triangular 
measurement,  we  found  to  be  two  hundred  and  nineteen  feet  in  height. 
The  stream  did  not  deflect  more  than  four  or  five  degrees  from  a  vertical 
line,  and  the  eruption  lasted  eighteen  minutes.  We  named  it  the  '  bee- 
hive.' 

Five  other  geysers  were  observed  by  the  exploring  party,  which  were 
variously  named  according  to  the  degree  of  activity,  the  shape  of  the 
column  of  water,  or  the  form  of  the  siliceous  deposit  about  the  orifice. 
...  The  '  Fan '  .  .  .  The  '  Grotto '  .  .  .  The  <  Castle '  .  .  .  The 
'Giant.'  .   .  . 

"  The  party  did  not  analyze  the  waters.  The  sinter  was  both  carbon- 
iferous and  siliceous,  the  latter  characteristic  predominating;  and  we 
may  with  confidence  conclude  that  the  waters  contains  considerable 
silica  in  solution." 

The  springs  observed  in  this  region,  which  resembled  boiling  mud, 
deposited  a  sediment  of  various  colors — some  white,  some  delicate  laven- 
der, and  others  of  a  brilliant  pink.  An  analysis  of  specimens  of  this 
sediment,  by  Prof.  Augustus  Staitz,  gave  the  following  results: 


TOPOGRAPHY,    '  •''«'•<    '"     IIM     rTTOTEBH    HIGHLANDS. 


281 


Soups. 

White  Bedl m 

per  oent. 

Lavender  Bed. 
per  oent. 

Pink  Sediment. 

per  '•••lit. 

L2.2 

:;:":.  1 

18.7 

6.6 

LOO.O 

28.2 

4.2 

58.6 
8.2 
0.6 

6.2 

B2.6 

".vj.'i 

Oxide  of  iron 

4.2 
2.6 

Total   .             

100.0 

100.0 

In  Xevada,  hot  springs  have  been  described  near  Pueblo,  in  Hum- 
bolt  County;  and  '  Volcano'  Springs  in  Lander  County;  but  the  sur- 
roundings have  not  yet  been  improved,  nor  the  water  analyzed. 

In  Montana,  white  sulphur  springs,  sixty  miles  by  stage  from  Liv- 
ingston, a  station  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Eailroad,  in  a  broad  valley, 
surrounded  by  mountains,  whose  peaks  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow, 
are  said  to  exist,  but  no  analysis  of  the  water  has  been  published,  and 
improvements  are  yet  in  embryo. 

In  Utah,  near  Salt  Lake  City,  Salt  Lake  Hot  (sulphur)  Springs  are  a 
popular  resort  for  invalids  from  thereabouts  for  skin  diseases  and  rheu- 
matism.    Temperature  110°  to  128  F.;  no  analysis  available. 


OHAPTEE    XVIII. 

CLIMATOLOGICAL  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  MINERAL   SPRINGS 
OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 

The  mountain  slope  to  the  Pacific  is,  for  the  most  part,  very  abrupt 
and  irregular.  It  begins  in  latitude  62°  north,  with  the  descending 
grade  of  the  Alaska  Mountains  southerly,  and  westerly  into  Alaska  pen- 
insula, 350  miles  long  and  25  miles  in  average  breadth.  And  from  the 
base  of  Alaska  peninsula  the  slope  continues  an  irregular  parallel  with 
the  coast  all  the  way  from  Alaska  to  Southern  California.  From  the  in- 
terior westward  there  is  a  continuous  and  quite  uniform  range — the 
Sierra  Nevada  of  California,  and  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Oregon. 
North  of  50°  latitude  all  these  are  merged  into  and  consist  of  off-shoots 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  whole  range  is  sharp,  with  snowy, 
humid  summits  clothed  with  forests  for  the  most  part,  and  very  rarely 
taking  on  the  plateau  form,  except  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  south  of 
Oregon  and  the  north  of  California. '  But  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  latitude  34£°,  the  range  declines  so  much  from  about 
that  point  to  its  termination  in  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California  as  to 
lose  its  climatic  influence. 

The  climate  of  this  extensive  coast  slope  is  exceedingly  varied  by 
reason  of  the  broken  nature  of  the  surface,  but  greatly  modified  through- 
out by  proximity  to  the  ocean,  and  considerably  warmer  and  more  equable 
than  in  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  interior. 

Of  the  surface  and  climate  of  Alaska,  as  observed  in  the  vicinity  of 
Sitka,  Assistant  Surgeon  John  Brooke,  U.  S.  Army:/  gives  the  following 
description: 

"  The  town  of  Sitka,  including  the  military  post  of  the  same  name, 
is  located  on  the  western  side  of  Baranoff  Island,  in  latitude  57°  3'  north; 
longitude  58°  36  west.  It  is  built  upon  the  shore  of  Sitka  Bay,  about 
ten  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  upon  a  point  of  the  island  where  the  Bay 
divides  into  two  arms,  one  of  which  runs  about  ten  miles  into  the  island, 
and  terminates  in  Silver  Bay,  while  the  other  passes  round  the  northern 
end  of  the  island  to  join  the  inland  waters.   .  .  . 

"  The  physical  appearance  of  the  country  around  Sitka  has  been  likened 
to  the  first  picture  in  the  common  school  atlas  of  the  comparative  height  of 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  482. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,   OF   mi:    r  \<  1 1  i< ■   SLOPS.  233 

mountains.  A.  chain  of  mountain  peaks  of  various  heights  encompa 
the  place  <>n  every  side,  except  that  toward  the  open  sea,  while  the,  nar- 
row strip  of  level  country  which  lies  between  tin'  town  and  the  mountain 
base  is  so  covered  with  moss  and  rotten  timber  that  its  surface  resembles 
water-soaked  sponges.  Several  small  glaciers  can  be  seen  on  the  moun- 
tain sides  during  the  middle  of  summer;  in  winter  they  are  entirely 
covered  with  snow.  Some  ten  orfifteen  miles  westward  from  the  town  is 
Mount  Edgecombj  an  extinct  volcano,  with  the  furrowed  tufa  near  the 
top  and  the  crater  still  plainly  visible.  It  forms  an  important  landmark 
for  mariners  entering  the  bay. 

The  tops  of  the  mountains,  which  almost  encompass  the  place,  are 
more  or  less  covered  with  snow  and  ice  during  the  entire  year,  and  con- 
sequently act  as  condensers  to  the  moisture  contained  in  the  warmer  air, 
which  comes  in  from  the  ocean.  Rain  is,  therefore,  an  almost  daily 
feature  of  the  place.  During  the  winter,  snow  sometimes  takes  the  place 
of  rain,  lying  last  winter  to  the  depth  of  over  three  feet  at  one  time. 
During  the  year  1873,  the  rain-fall  was  74. G4  inches.  In  one  month  of 
this  year  (October,  1874),  it  amounted  to  17.98  inches.  The  cold  is 
never  very  intense,  the  thermometer  seldom,  if  ever,  getting  as  low  as 
zero;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  rarely  reaches  70  in  the  warmest  sum- 
mer weather,  and  fires  are  lighted  almost  every  day  in  the  year.  During 
the  shortest  days  there  are  but  six  hours  of  sunlight;  and  as  the  sun  only 
attains  an  elevation  of  about  10%  it  follows  that  on  cloudy  days,  which 
is  the  rule,  it  is  dark  and  gloomy  at  mid-day,  while  during  the  months  of 
June  and  July  it  never  grows  entirely  dark,  the  nights  being  rather  a 
prolonged  twilight. 

"  It  might  naturally  be  supposed  that  in  such  a  climate  acute  rheu- 
matism and  acute  pulmonary  inflammation  would  be  very  common,  but 
such  is  not  the  case.  During  a  tour  of  nearly  fifteen  months,  I  have  seen 
but  one  case  of  acute  rheumatism,  and  not  a  single  case  of  uncomplicated 
pneumonia  or  pleuritis.  Cases  of  subacute  rheumatism,  however,  and 
pains  and  aches  of  a  few  days'  duration  are  quite  frequent.  Pulmonary 
phthisis  is  not  uncommon,  and  forms  a  large  percentage  of  the  cases  of 
disease  even  among  the  native  Indians. 

"  Cases  of  sickness  not  infrequently  occur  in  which  there  is  a  general 
adynamic  condition  of  the  system  without  definable  disease,  a  condition 
which  is  doubtless  due  to  the  depressing  influences  of  almost  continuous 
wet,  and  cool  and  cloudy  weather;  a  monotonous  diet,  in  which  fresh 
fruits  and  vegetables  play  an  insignificant  part;  the  almost  entire  ab- 
sence of  out-door  amusements,  and  the  want  of  opportunities  for  suffi- 
cient exercise  in  the  open  air." 

Of  712  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  the  post  during  four  years,  1870- 
1874,  two  were  for  consumption.  The  most  prevalent  disease  was  rheu- 
matism, of  which  there  were  130  cases.     There  were  but  four  deaths,  two 


234  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

of  which  are  classed  under  the  head  of  "  other  local  diseases,"  and  the 
other  two,  one  drowned,  and  bhe  other  suicide. 

The  climate  of  Washington  Territory,  at  the  altitude  of  2,800  feet 
above  the  sea,  latitude  48°  41'  north;  longitude  40°  52'  west;  is  described 
by  Assistant  Surgeons  E.  G.  Chase  and  W.  D.  Baker,  IT.  S.  Army,1  as 
being  cold  in  the  extreme;  the  atmosphere  dry,  crisp,  and  bracing. 
"■  Malarial  diseases  entirely  unknown  in  the  country.  Not  one  case  of 
phthisis  originated  at  the  place;  but  two  or  three  cases,  which  were  im- 
ported, rapidly  improved  under  treatment;  phthisis,  however,  is  very 
prevalent  and  very  fatal  among  the  Indians/' 

Of  219  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  the  military  post  during  four 
years,  1870-74,  there  was  one  only  of  phthisis.  The  most  prevalent  dis- 
eases were  rheumatism,  catarrhal  and  diarrhceal  diseases. 

At  Fort  Vancouver,  situated  on  the  Columbia  River,  one  hundred 
and  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth,  latitude  45°  40'  north;  longitude  48 
27'  west;  on  information  furnished  by  Surgeon-General  J.  K.  Barnes, 
Surgeons  J.  II.  Bill  and  R.  H.  Alexander,  U.  S.  Army,2  for  the  same 
period,  of  1,091  cases  of  disease  recorded,  three  were  for  consumption. 
The  most  prevalent  diseases  were  catarrh  and  bronchitis  (223  cases), 
diarrhceal  diseases  and  rheumatism. 

According  to  the  report3  of  Surgeon  C.  H.  Alden,  U.  S.  Army,  from 
Fort  Walla  Walla,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Territory,  latitude 
46°  4'  north;  longitude  40°  21'  west;  865  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  prevalent  diseases  at  the  post  and  in  the  vicinity  are  malarial  and 
rheumatic  affections.  Of  288  recorded  cases  of  disease  at  the  post,  there 
were  for  diarrhoea  and  dysentery  35,  catarrh  and  bronchitis  30,  other  local 
causes  101,  for  rheumatism  and  phthisis  none. 

The  climate  of  Oregon  in  the  interior,  and  at  an  altitude  of  4,000 
feet  and  upwards,  as  observed  by  Assistant  Surgeons  Charles  Styer,  R. 
Knickerbocker,  and  C.  B.  Byrne,  U.  S.  Army,  from  Camp  Harney, 
latitude  43°  30'  north;  longitude  41°  27'  west;  and  Assistant  Surgeon 
Henry  McEldevy,  U.  S.  Army,  from  Fort  Klamath,  in  southwestern 
Oregon,  latitude  42°  39'  4"  north;  longitude  44°  40'  west;  is  very  severe 
in  the  winter  months;  and  frosts  during  every  month  in  the  year.  Of 
836  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  the  first-mentioned  of  these  posts  during 
four  years,  1870-1874,  three  were  for  consumption;  and  at  the  second, 
for  the  same  period,  of  659  cases,  14  were  for  consumption.  Catarrh  and 
bronchitis,  diarrhceal  diseases  and  rheumatism  were  prevalent.  At  Fort 
Stevens,  situated  upon  the  extremity  of  Point  Adams,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River,  on  a  low  sandy  spit,  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of 


'Op.  cit.,  pp.  463,  468. 
"Op.  cit.  p.  488. 
3  Op.  cit.,  p.  492. 


TOF0QBAPHY,    ETC.,   OF   THE    PACIFIC   BLOPS.  235 

of  spruce  and   hemlock,  Assistant  Surgeon  I).    L.    Huntington,  ('.  8. 

A i- my,  reports:  ' 

"The  climate  is  equable,  much  more  so  than  on  the  same  isothermal 
line  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  year  is  practically  divided  into  a  dry  and 

Wet  season.  The  former  embraces  the  months  of  May,  June.  .Inly, 
August,  and  September,  during  which  hut  little  ram  falls.  The  rains 
commence  usually  in  October,  and  continue  almost  without  intermis- 
sion until  May. 

"Sudden  or  excessive  changes  of  temperature  are  very  uncommon. 
During  the  year  1873,  the  highest  recorded  temperature  la  86°j  the 
lowest,  24°.    The  average  mean  temperature  of  several  years  is  about  54°. 

"Snow  and  ice  are  not  common,  and  generally,  during  the  winters, 
vegetation  is  not  entirely  suspended. 

"The  annual  rain-fall  is  excessive,  and  is  confined  to  the  wet  season. 
During  1873,  77.80  inches  fell,  which  is  about  the  average. 

"  The  prevailing  winds  of  winter  are  southeast  and  southwest,  occa- 

i  ally  northeast.     The  former  are  warm  and  humid;  the  latter,  dry 

and  cold.     During  summer,  the  prevailing  wind  is  from  the  northeast.*" 

Of  21G  cases  of  disease  recorded  at  the  post  during  the  four  years1 
observation,  two  were  for  consumption.  The  most  prevalent  diseases 
were  those  classed  under  the  head  of  "local  diseases,"  but  none  particu- 
larly prominent. 

In  California  alone,  the  climate  extends  over  almost  ten  degrees  of 
latitude.  But  that  of  the  sea-shore  is  generally  influenced  by  the  tem- 
perature of  the  ocean.  The  cold  current  which  flows  out  of  Behring 
Strait  and  hugs  the  coast  inside  of  the  Kuro-sievo,  or  Pacific  ocean- 
current,  similar  to  the  Gulf  stream,  has  a  temperature  of  from  52  to 
54°  the  year  round.  From  April  to  October,  inclusive,  north  or  north- 
west Avinds  prevail,  and  almost  daily  during  this  period  a  deluge  of  cold, 
damp  air,  of  nearly  the  same  temperature  as  the  ocean  over  which  it  has 
passed,  is  poured  upon  the  land.  It  is  commonly  laden  with  mist  in 
dense  clouds,  which  it  deposits  at  the  foot  of  hills,  and  on  the  slopes  of 
the  high  lands,  or  carries  a  short  distance  into  the  interior. 

"Wherever  there  is  a  break  in  the  mountain  wall  which  shuts  off  these 
mists  from  the  sunny  valleys  of  Middle  California,  the  climate  is,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  the  opposite  of  the  sea-coast  climate  in  every  respect; 
so  effectually  do  the  mountains  shut  off  the  basins  of  the  interior. 

Notwithstanding,  it  is  remarkable  to  observe  that  of  G,792  cases  of 
disease  recorded  at  the  military  posts,  during  a  period  of  four  years, 
1870-1874,  in  California  near  the  sea-level — the  greatest  altitude  being 
397  feet — 30,  or  one  in  226.5,  were  for  consumption;  while  of  422  cases 
recorded  at  the  posts  east  of  the  coast  chain  of  mountains,  at  altitudes 


Op.  cit.,  p.  484. 


236  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE   PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

of  4,680  and  4,958  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  there  were  3,  or  one  in 
140,  for  consumption. 

Commencing  at  the  south,  the  chain  of  mountains  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  sea-coast  range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  completely  shuts  off 
the  ocean  climate,  and  instead  of  the  moderately  humid  air  of  the  western 
slope  to  the  Pacific,  there  is  on  the  eastern  slope  and  basins  of  this  region 
a  climate  of  unusual  dryness  and  of  almost  fiery  severity,  reducing  the 
soil  to  a  desert.  Even  the  mountains  which  retain  the  snow  till  a  late 
period  in  the  season  have  a  high  temperature  in  the  middle  of  the  day, 
and  the  presence  of  snow  on  their  summit  in  June  is  due  rather  to  the 
great  mass  which  has  accumulated  on  them  in  winter  than  to  the  lowness 
of  temperature  even  at  such  altitudes  at  this  season. 

The  great  altitude  of  the  mountains  near  the  Pacific  coast  is  one  of 
the  most  distinctible  features  of  surface  character  exercising  influence 
over  the  climate.  Those  near  the  coast  are  much  broken;  that  is  to  say, 
they  consist  of  overlapping  groups,  from  forty  to  seventy  miles  wide,  at 
an  altitude  nowhere  exceeding  4,000  feet,  from  twenty  to  seventy  miles 
from  the  coast.  But  at  their  crests,  twenty  to  fifty  miles  further  from 
the  coast,  some  of  the  peaks  reach  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet.  And  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  of  which  the  irregular  coast  chains  and  groups 
are  off-shoots,  from  one  hundred  and  ten  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
from  the  coast,  attain  a  considerably  greater  average  altitude,  the 
highest  peaks  being  12,000  to  15,000  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific.  But 
these  also  are  sufficiently  near  the  coast  to  exercise  considerable  influence 
over  the  climate. 

In  San  Francisco,  and  in  most  of  the  towns  on  the  coast  north  of  that 
port,  the  summer  temperature  is  frequently  too  cool  for  comfort.  In 
the  nine  degrees  of  latitude,  between  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  Eiver 
and  Monterey,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year  varies  only  three  or  four 
degrees,  but  the  summers  are  hotter  and  the  winters  cooler  in  the 
northern  part  than  in  the  southern. 

Between  the  coast  and  the  interior  valleys,  there  is  a  large  district 
under  the  joint  influence  of  the  ocean  atmosphere  and  the  forests,  ap- 
proximating the  condition  of  Florida,  with  the  additional  influence  of 
mountain  peaks  hard  by,  and  consequently  enjoying  one  of  the  most 
delightful  climates  in  the  world.  This  region  is  composed  chiefly  of  the 
valleys  surrounding  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  and  expanding  into  the 
interior  in  every  direction.  The  sea-breeze,  with  its  clouds  and  abun- 
dant moisture,  prevents  these  valleys  from  being  parched  with  drought, 
tempers  the  fierceness  of  the  heat,  and  moderates  the  cold  of  winter. 

Except  in  the  northern  counties,  there  is  nothing  which  can  properly 
be  called  winter  in  this  region,  the  year  being  divided  into  the  rainy  and 
dry  seasons.  Through  the  rainy  season  in  San  Francisco  and  on  the  coast 
generally    (as   may   be   seen   by   turning   to  the  charts  and  records  of 


Tol'ouKAI'IIY,    ire,    OF   THE    PAl  LFIO   SLOPE.  287 

humidity),  do  more  rain  falls  than   in  the  Atlantic  States  daring  the 
Bummer. 

In  southern  California:1 

"The  winter  maybe  said  to  commence  about  November.  During 
this  season  the  days  are  usually  warm,  and  i  In-  eights  cold,  t  he  difference 
in  temperature  being  very  great.  In  the  lowlands  ice  sometimes  forms. 
The  atmosphere  is  exceedingly  dry,  and  very  Little  rain  falls  during  the 
winter.  When  the  coast  rams  prevail  in  California,  sometimes  a  few 
drops  fall  here.  The  climate  is  rendered  somewhat  disagreeable  by 
occasional  violent  sand-storms,  usually  from  the  northwest.  They  can 
be  seen  approaching  for  some  hours,  gradually  obscuring  the  sun; 
finally  they  burst  with  su  Iden  fury,  tilling  the  air  and  everything 
around  with  fine  dust.  These  sand-storms  sometimes  last  three  days; 
in  the  intervals  between  them  no  more  delightful  climate  could  be 
desired.  Fires  are  necessary  during  these  months,  November  to  March, 
and  heavy  underclothing  is  required  to  protect  the  body  from  the  sudden 
change  of  temperature  which  takes  place  after  sundown. 

"Spring  commences  about  the  last  of  February,  and  is  without  rain. 
The  cotton -woods  and  willows  put  forth  new  leaves,  but,  owing  to  the 
continued  cold  nights,  the  leaves  do  not  mature  before  the  middle  of 
April.     Fires  are  still  required  in  the  evenings  and  early  mornings. 

"  The  heat  rapidly  increases  from  the  latter  part  of  May,  and  in  June, 
July,  August,  and  September  may  be  said  to  be  intense.  In  the  months 
of  July  and  August  (the  rainy  season  in  Sonora),  clouds  are  seen  passing 
to  the  northeast  accompanied  with  rain,  thunder,  and  lightning;  occa- 
sionally they  reach  the  vicinity  of  Yuma,  and  are  most  refreshing.  Dur- 
ing the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June,  no  rain  falls;  then,  with  the 
thermometer  at  105°,  the  perspiration  is  scarcely  seen  upon  the  skin, 
and  it  becomes  dry  and  harsh,  and  the  hair  crispy.  Furniture  put 
together  at  the  north  and  brought  here  falls  to  pieces;  travelling  chests 
gape  at  their  seams,  and  a  sole-leather  trunk  contracts  so  that  with  diffi- 
culty the  tray  can  be  lifted.  Furniture,  to  hold  together,  must  be  made 
of  the  very  dryest  timber.  The  extreme  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  is 
observed  in  the  ink  that  dries  so  rapidly  upon  the  pen  that  it  requires 
washing  off  every  few  minutes.  A  No.  2  'Faber'  leaves  no  more  trace 
on  paper  than  a  piece  of  anthracite,  and  it  is  necessary  to  keep  one  im- 
mersed in  water  while  using  one  that  has  been  standing  in  water  for 
some  time.  Newspapers  require  to  be  unfolded  with  care;  if  rudely 
handled  they  break.  I  was  called  to  inspect  some  commissary  stores  a 
short   time  ago,    and   the    loss    they  had   sustained  was    remarkable. 


1  Report  from  Fort  Yuma,  on  the  Colorado  River,  180  miles  from  its  mouth; 
latitude  32c  23'  3"  north;  longitude  373  33'  9"  west;  altitude  267  feet  above  tide 
water.  Assistant  Surgeons  J.  V.  Lauderdale  and  George  S.  Rose.  Op.  cit.,  p. 
559. 


238  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE   PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

Twelve-pound  boxes  of  soap  weighed  ten  pounds.  Hams  had  lost  twelve 
per  cent  and  rice  two  per  cent  of  their  original  weight.  Eggs  that  have 
been  on  hand  for  a  few  weeks  lose  their  watery  contents  by  evaporation; 
the  remainder  is  thick  and  tough;  this  has  probably  led  to  the  story  that 
our  hens  lay  hard-boiled  eggs. 

"The  mercury  gained  the  highest  point  last  summer  (1873)  on  the 
second  day  of  July,  when,  for  two  hours,  it  stood  at  132°  in  the  shade. 
All  metallic  bodies  were  hot  to  the  touch;  my  watch  felt  like  a  hot-boiled 
egg  in  my  pocket;  the  cords  on  my  grass  hammock  were  like  heated 
wires.  At  such  times,  if  the  wind  is  from  the  south,  the  air  is  like  that 
from  the  mouth  of  a  furnace,  hot  and  ovenish. 

"The  effort  to  cool  one's  self  with  an  ordinary  fan  would  be  vain, 
because  the  surrounding  atmosphere  is  of  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
body.  The  earth  under  foot  is  dry  and  powdery,  and  hot  as  flour  just 
ground,  while  the  rocks  are  so  hot  that  the  hands  cannot  be  borne  upon 
them.  The  parade  is  always  hot  at  mid-day,  and  the  story  told  of  a  dog 
that  ran  on  three  legs  across  it,  barking  with  pain  at  every  step,  may  be 
correct,  though  I  have  never  seen  it  tried. 

"  This  post,  though  not  the  most  southerly,  is  the  hottest  military 
post  in  the  United  States;  the  highest  temperature  recorded  in  our 
books  since  1850,  when  the  post  was  established,  is  119°,  observed  at 
2.25  p.m.,  June  6th,  1859.  A  temperature  of  100°  may  exist  at  Fort 
Yuma  for  weeks  in  succession,  and  there  will  be  no  additional  case  of 
sickness  in  consequence. 

"  The  dress  must  be  of  the  lightest,  suitable  to  the  temperature. 
The  lightest  woollen  fabrics  that  are  made  should  be  worn  next  to  the 
skin,  or,  if  woollen  is  not  borne  well,  cotton.  The  dress  of  the  natives 
is  very  simple.  The  heavily-fringed  kilt,  made  of  the  bark  of  the  Cot- 
tonwood, or  woollen  yarn  in  two  divisions,  which  hardly  come  together 
at  the  hips,  and  worn  about  the  loins,  is  the  fashion  which  obtains 
among  the  Yuma  women,  while  the  men  of  this  tribe  encumber  them- 
selves with  about  two  yards  of  muslin,  and  a  belt  or  strap. 

"  Ice  is  never  seen,  not  even  on  the  coldest  day  in  winter.  I  do  not 
think  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  the  article  in  summer  if  it  could  be 
furnished.  The  water  we  drink  is  relatively  cool  at  60°  to  75c,  and  is 
very  refreshing. 

"  We  have  none  of  the  malarial  diseases  incident  to  the  cities  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  along  the  eastern  seaboard.  The  heat  depresses  the 
already  debilitated,  and  we  miss  the  tonic  effect  of  the  cold  weather;  but 
those  who  come  here  in  good  health,  and  observe  the  ordinary  rules  for 
preserving  it,  will  have  nothing  to  fear  from  the  high  temperature. 

"  The  influence  of  the  great  '  Colorado  Desert '  on  the  climate  is 
more  or  less  felt  in  all  the  counties  comprising  the  southern  half  of  the 
State.  The  desert  is  an  immense  oven  where  a  hot  and  rarefied  air  is 
generated,  which  rages  in  hot  blasts  from  time  to  time  over  these  coun- 


TO] i:\imiv,    BTO.j    OF   THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE.  239 

tic-.     The  rain  which  waters  the  northern  portion  of  Mexico  docs  not 
travel  across  the  desert,  the  moisture  being  taken  up  by  the  not,  dry  air. 

These  dry  and  desiccating  cnrrents  exhaust  also  the  moisture  which 
comes  down  from  the  north  in  winter,  so  that  then;  is  ;i  large  rainless 
area  <»n  the  southern  border  of  the  State  which  is  year  after  year  robbed 
of  its  moisture  by  the  proximity  of  the  desert.  Geologists  affirm  that, 
at  one  time  the  greater  part  of  this  desert  was  covered  by  the  waters  of 
the  Gulf  of  California,  and  the  theory  is  maintained  that  if  the  greater 
part  were  again  submerged,  hot  winds  would  cease  to  rage  over  t 
southern  counties,  and  as  much  rain  would  fall  there  as  upon  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  State.  The  climate  would  then  be  cooler  and  more  equa- 
ble. Much  of  the  land  comprising  the  desert  has  been  found  to  be 
below  the  level  of  the  low  tides  of  the  Gulf,  and  practical  engineers 
maintain  that  at  comparatively  small  expense  this  great  desert  furnace 
can  he  cooled  by  covering  it  with  water.  The  theory  is  that,  were  the 
desert  a  sea,  it  would  send  up  a  column  of  atmosphere  charged  with 
moisture,  which,  meeting  the  colder  currents  from  the  ocean,  would 
precipitate  frequent  showers,  and  thus  change  large  tracts  of  the  coun- 
try from  barrenness  to  fertility." 

Dr.  A.  B.  Stuart,  a  former  resident  of  Winona,  Minnesota,  in  a  paper 
on  "Santa  Barbara  as  a  Health  Resort/'  states  that,  from  personal  ob- 
servation 

"  Almost  any  desirable  peculiarity,  either  in  climate  or  geographic 
location,  from  sea  level  to  3,500  feet  of  altitude,  for  invalids  can  be  ob- 
tained in  Santa  Barbara  and  vicinity.  If  the  coast  is  found  too  cool  and 
damp,  as  it  is  at  times  during  the  months  of  March,  April,  and  May,  by 
going  back  from  two  to  six  miles  from  the  ocean,  numberless  sheltered 
nooks  can  be  found,  among  the  foot-hills,  in  the  canons  or  on  the  moun- 
tain side,  where  the  air  is  both  warmer  and  dryer. 

"The  middle  of  the  ' warm  belt' is  said  to  be  somewhere  between 
200  and  600  feet  above  sea  level,  in  which  the  old  Mission  of  Santa  Bar- 
bara is  situated,  it  being  300  feet  above  the  ocean  and  two  and  one-half 
miles  distant  therefrom;  yet  it  does  not  receive  the  full  benefit  that  the 
altitude  should  give  it,  in  consequence  of  a  peculiar  geographical  north- 
west wind  which  occasionally  visits  certain  exposed  localities.  But,  by 
going  from  one  to  three  miles  farther  from  the  coast,  that  wind  is 
avoided. 

"  At  the  summit  station  in  the  San  Marcus  Pass,  on  the  stage  road 
over  the  Santa  Ynez  Mountain,  at  an  elevation  of  about  2,500  feet,  the 
air  is  so  dry  during  the  summer  season  that  invalids  can  camp  out  and 
sleep  upon  the  ground.  Dr.  E.  X.  AVood,  a  gentleman  of  culture  and 
experience,  whose  life  in  a  hopeless  decline,  pulmonary  phthisis,  was 
prolonged  several  years  by  a  residence  in  this  valley,  spent  a  portion  of 
the  last  year  of  his  life  camping  out  in  that  picturesque  locality,  with 
great   satisfaction    to   himself.       He    frequently   preferred   taking  his 


240  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE   PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

blankets  and   sleeping  in  the   open   air  just  outside  the  door  of  his 
tent. 

"  If  a  hot  and  very  dry  climate  is  sought,  the  Ojai  Valley  will  fur- 
nish the  desideratum.  It  is  a  basin  inclosed  with  a  rim  of  mountains. 
Nordhoff  is  the  only  village  in  the  valley,  and  contains  two  hotels  and 
several  boarding-houses.  Is  fifteen  miles  from  the  ocean  and  forty- five 
from  this  city  by  the  present  road,  but  will  soon  be  brought  within  thirty 
miles  by  a  road  shortly  to  be  opened.  Altitude  of  Nordhoff,  900  feet. 
Prof.  Bennett,  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  writing  of  phthisis  pul- 
monalis,  says:  '  Much  has  been  written  of  climate,  but  the  one  which 
appears  to  be  best  is  that  which  will  enable  the  patient  to  pass  a  few 
hours  every  day  in  the  open  air.  without  exposure  to  cold  or  vicissitudes 
of  temperature  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  extreme  heat  on  the  other,'  or 
words  to  that  effect. 

1 '  I  know  of  no  geographical  boundary  of  the  same  number  of  miles 
that  so  fully  complies  with  the  above  requirement  as  Santa  Barbara, 
with  her  sheltered  nooks  and  the  Ojai  Valley.  As  proof  of  what  I  have 
said,  so  far  as  it  pertains  to  this  city,  I  give  the  following  summary  of  a 
daily  record  kept  for  one  year,  by  L.  Bradley,  Esq.,  of  Aurora,  111.,  who 
came  here  for  a  temporary  residence  on  account  of  advanced  phthisis,  he 
having  had  severe  and  frequent  hemorrhages.  '  During  the  year  there 
were  310  pleasant  days,  in  which  an  invalid  could  be  out-of-doors  five  or 
six  hours  each  day  with  safety  and  comfort;  29  cloudy  days,  upon  20  of 
which  an  invalid  could  be  out-of-doors  for  a  short  time;  12  showery 
days,  upon  7  of  which  an  invalid  could  be  out  an  hour  at  a  time  several 
times  each  day;  10  windy  and  5  rainy  days,  confining  an  invalid  to  the 
house  the  entire  day.'  The  time  of  observation  extended  from  February 
1st,  1876,  to  February  1st,  1877.  Since  all  Mr.  Bradley's  pecuniary 
interests  are  in  the  Eastern  States,  the  charge  of  'interested  in  it,' made 
by  the  writer  referred  to,  cannot  apply  to  his  statements.  Through  the 
kindness  of  L.  N.  Dimmick,  M.D.,  formerly  of  Ottawa,  111. — a  phthisi- 
cal invalid  unable  even  here  to  pursue  the  active  duties  of  his  profession, 
but  who  has  been  for  five  years  a  most  diligent  and  trustful  observer  and 
recorder  of  events  that  pertain  to  this  place  as  a  sanitarium — I  am  per- 
mitted to  draw  liberally  upon  the  material  furnished  by  his  records  and 
note-book.  He  says:  'The  average  temperature  for  three  years  has 
been,  at  7  a.m.,  58°,  at  2  p.m.  69°,  and  at  9  p.m.  57°,  showing  that  mid- 
day was  11°  warmer  than  morning,  12 :  warmer  than  evening.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  days  in  each  year  mentioned  during  which  the  tempera- 
ture fell  below  43°  above  zero  and  rose  above  83°. 

1873 below  43°  on  7  days,  above  83°  on  1  day. 

1874 "       "      "9     "  "      "      "   6  days. 

1875 "       "      "4     "  "       "      "22    " 

1876 "       "      "17    "  "       "      "  4    ' 

Average  below  43°,  9£  days;  average  above  83°,  8£  days. 


TOPOGRAPHY,    in.,    01     im     PAOIFIO  SLOPE.  241 

•■  The  meat i  relative  humidity  Cor  the  year  ending  April  1  «t ,  ISTT,  was 
69.41,"  which  oompares  favorably  with  that  ot  San  Diego  as  given  by 
the  above-mentioned  correspondent  at  72.4.  Carrying  the  comparison 
of  tin'  relative  humidity  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  showing  is 
still  more  favorable  for  Santa  Barbara: 

Mean  Relative  Humidity  for  Santa  Barbara,  G9.41  per  cent. 
"         "  "  "  Philadelphia,  80  per  cent. 

"  New  Orleans,  83.50  per  cent. 

And  taking  a  still  wider  range  for  the  difference  in  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  mouths  of  January  and  July,  the  comparison  is  no  less 
favorable. 

"Mean  temperature  of  January  and  July: 

Jan.  July.  Difference. 

Santa  Barbara,  Cal 53.25 68.20 14.95 

San  Diego,  Cal 53.55 70.32  ....  16.77 

St.  Augustine,  Fla 56.79 80.91 24.12 

Jacksonville,  Fla 55.51  81.73 26.22 

Akin,  Geo  47.05 79.91 32.85 

Galveston,  Texas 51.55 84.42 32.87 

Denver,  Col ' 26  57  72.68 46.11 

Algiers 52 75 23. 

Mentone 40 73 33. 

"Blodget's  Climatology  has  furnished  part  of  my  data,  and  the  bal- 
ance is  from  sources  no  less  trustworthy.  By  census  of  Santa  Barbara 
County,  taken  from  the  records  in  the  Court-house,  in  1870,  the  popu- 
lation was  7,984,  in  which  the  number  of  deaths  from  consumption, 
phthisis  pulmonalis,  was  only  five,  or  one  death  by  consumption  in 
1,596  of  a  population.  The  number  of  deaths  from  all  causes  was  sixty- 
three,  so  that  a  little  less  than  one-thirteenth  of  the  mortality  was  from 
phthisis.  The  total  mortality  was  one  in  12G  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
county.  This  was  before  the  tide  of  invalid  immigration  had  fully  set 
in,  and  gives  a  fairer  showing  as  to  the  climatic  effect  upon  phthisical 
patients  than  at  a  later  day,  when  so  many  come  in  the  far-advanced 
stages  of  the  disease,  beyond  the  remedial  agency  of  climate  or  anything 
else.  But  if  there  is  hope,  it  is  to  be  found  in  Santa  Barbara  or  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ojai,  on  the  plains  of  Anaheim,  the  historic  valley  of 
San  Gabriel,  so  graphically  described  by  the  above-mentioned  correspon- 
dent, as  I  can  bear  testimony  from  personal  observation. 

"  Santa  Barbara  is  free  from  that  extreme  heat  that  so  frequently  in- 
creases the  colliquative  diarrhoea  or  disease  of  the  bowels  so  often  accom- 
panying phthisis;  and  fever  and  ague,  or  other  indigenous  malarious 
diseases  are  unknown.  During  what  months  of  the  year  a  sojourn  here 
on  the  coast  will  be  most  beneficial  to  the  invalid,  phthisis,  or  whatever 
it  mav  be,  he  must  determine  for  himself — first  upon  the  advice  of  those 
16 


24:2  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

who  have  made  the  subject1  a  study,  and  secondly,  his  own  personal  ex- 
perience; for  what  is  beneficial  to  one  may  not  be  to  another,  although 
apparently  in  the  same  condition.  But  as  a  rule,  the  spring  months, 
March,  April,  and  May,  are  most  variable,  and  have  more  unpleasant 
days  than  other  portions  of  the  year.  At  this  season,  many  invalids  seek 
the  Ojai  Valley,  which  furnishes  a  most  pleasant  and  beneficial  retreat 
for  those  afflicted  with  a  sensitive  condition  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  air  passages.  A  few  remain  in  the  valley  during  the  summer,  while 
others  prefer  to  spend  the  year  in  Santa  Barbara,  enjoying  the  usually 
good  hotel  accommodations  of  this  city.  All  seasons  of  the  same  months 
are  not  alike;  but  the  past  January  and  February  (1877),  as  I  found 
them  in  the  city  and  vicinity  of  Santa  Barbara,  were  most  delightful, 
combining  all  the  climatic  advantages  that  any  place  could  offer  the 
nervously-depressed  invalid,  either  from  phthisis  or  any  other  cause."  1 

Of  mineral  springs  on  the  Pacific  Slope,  beginning  with  Sitka,  there 
are  said  to  he  warm  sulphur  springs  or  geysers,  96°  to  104D  Fahr., 
about  twenty  miles  from  the  City  of  Sitka,  which  were  much  f recpiented 
by  the  Russians  for  the  cure  of  syphilitic  and  rheumatic  affections  before 
this  territory  was  ceded  to  the  United  States,  but  no  analysis  of  the 
water  has  been  published,  by  which  the  properties  of  the  water  may  be 
verified. 

Wilhoifs  Soda  Springs,  Calcamas  County,  Oregon,  is  an  unusually 
valuable  alkaline  water. 

One  pint  contains  (J.  H.  Teach,  M.D.)  : 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,  ......  10.940 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  .....  10.665 

Carbonate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  .....  0.750 

Carbonate  of  lime,       ......  4.028 

Chloride  of  sodium,  ......  25.125 

Sulphate  of  soda,  .  .  .  .  .  .  0.425 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,       ......  0.810 

Iodine,  ........  trace 


Total,  .  52.749 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  42  cubic  inches. 

The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  they  contain  renders  them  very  exhila- 
rating.    They  are  mildly  laxative  and  diuretic. 

The  springs  are  salubriously  situated,  thirty  miles  northeast  from 
Salem. 

Lower  Soda  Spring  is  situated  in  the  Cascade  Mountains,  Linn 
County.  They  are  said  to  resemble  the  Wilhoit,  but  no  analysis  has 
been  made. 


•The  Sanitarian,  vol.  v.,  pp.  349-52. 


To i i:\rnv,    ktc,   of  Tin;    PACIFIC   BLOPB.  2±3 

Hot  Springs,  184    Fahr.,  in  Lane  County,  about  one  hundred  miles 
from  Springfield,  on  the  Oregon  and   California  Railroad,  the  near 
railroad  station;  and    Warm  Springs,  in  Cook  County,  on   an    Indian 
reservation  of  the  same  name,  have  been  reported,  but  no  analysis  has 
been  published. 

Oes  Cehutes  Hot  Springs,  in  Wasco  County.  One  pint  contains  (143" 
and  145    Fahr. ,  L.  M.  Dornbach  and  E.  N.  Horsford): 

Souds.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,  ......        4.312 


Chloride  of  potassium, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Chloride  of  magnesium, 
Sulphate  of  soda,  . 
Sulphate  of  lime, 
Silicate  of  soda, 
Iron, 

Total, 

Carbonic  acid,  2.82  cubic  inches 


0.350 
2.552 

0.152 
1.183 
0.228 
1.025 
trace 


9.702 


California  excels  in  the  number  of  her  mineral  springs,  of  almost 
every  variety,  and  some  of  them  are  of  great  value;  yet  comparatively 
few  of  the  waters  have  been  analyzed. 

California  Seltzir  Springs,  in  Mendocino  County,  twelve  miles  by 
stage  from  Lanel,  on  California  and  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  is  an  ex- 
cellent alkaline  water,  closely  resembling  the  imported  water  after  which 
it  is  named.       One  pint  contains  (61°  F.,  H.  G-.  Hanks): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,  ......  7.598 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  .....  11.118 

Carbonate  of  lime,  ......         1.938 

Carbonate  of  iron,        ......  0.567 

Chloride  of  sodium,  ......  1.478 

Alumina,  .......  0.075 

Silica  ........  0.729 


Total,     ........  22.503 

Carbonic  acid,  45  cubic  inches. 

Vichy  Springs,  Xew  Almaden,  Santa  Clara  County,  about  sixty  miles 
south  from  San  Francisco,  are  also  named  with  reference  to  the  re- 
semblance of  the  water  to  the  imported  Vichy.  One  pint  contains 
(Second  Biennial  Report  of  State  Board  of  Health): 

Souds.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,  ......  17.440 

Carbonate  of  lime,  .            .            .            .            .            .  2.878 

Chloride  of  sodium,  ......  4. 200 


244  TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF    THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

Solids.  Grains. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,            .....  1.500 

Sulphate  of  lime,  ...                        ...  5.250 

Oxide  of  iron,  .......  0.600 

Silica,             ........  trace 


Total,     ........  31.868 

Carbonic  acid,  29.85  cubic  inches. 

Adams  Springs,  in  Lake  County,  from  Callistoga  or  Lower    Lake. 
One  pint  contains: 

Solids.  Grains. 

Cai'bonate  of  soda,  ......        7.129 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  .....  12.378 

Carbonate  of  iron,  ......        0.064 

Carbonate  of  lime,       ......  3.589 

Chloride  of  sodium,  .  .  .  .  .  .0.514 

Potassa  salts,    .......  traces 

Nitric  acid,  .......       traces 

Silica, 0.902 

Organic  matter,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .0.851 


Total, .  24.927 

Carbonic  acid,  38.00  cubic  inches. 

Congress  Spring,  Santa  Clara  County,  on  the  San  Jose  branch  of  the 
Central  Pacific  Railroad,  about  forty  miles  south  from  San  Francisco,  is 
a  muriated-alkaline  water.     One  pint  contains  (50°  Fahr.): 

Solids.  Grains. 
Carbonate  of  soda,            .            .            .            .            .            .15.418 

Carbonate  of  iron,        ......  1.753 

Carbonate  of  lime,  ......  2.161 

Chloride  of  sodium,     .  .  .  .  .  .  14  894 

Sulphate  of  soda,  .......  1.517 

Silica,  alumina,  and  trace  of  magnesia,       .  .  .  6.235 

Total, 41.978 

This  water  is  extensively  on  the  market  in  California,  charged  artifi- 
cially with  carbonic  acid,  and  very  agreeable. 

Fry's  Soda  Spring,  Liskiyon  County,  near  Oregon  Railroad,  is  a 
chalybeate  water,  highly  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  sparkling  like 
soda  water.     No  analysis. 

Napa  Soda  Springs,  in  Napa  County,  by  steamer  from  San  Fran- 
cisco to  Vallejo,  thence  by  Valley  Railroad  to  Napa  City,  and  stage  to 
the  springs;  alkaline  chalybeate.     One  point  contains  (Langweert): 


TOPOGRAPHY,    BTO.j   OF  Tin:    l'A<  ifi<:   si.oi'K. 


245 


Solids. 
Carbonate  of  soda, 

( 'arhnnatc  <>f  magnesia, 
t  larbonate  of  iron, 
Carbonate  of  Lime, 
Chloride  <>f  sodium, 
Sulphate  of  soda, 

Silicic  at  ill. 

Alumina, 

Loss, 


( trains 

1.188 

8.266 

0.960 

L.860 

0.650 

0.230 

0.085 

0.076 

0.310 

Total. 


s.Oijii 


Highland  Sprint/*.  Lake  County,  from  San  Francisco  via  Cloverdale 
or  Calistigo.  Situated  at  an  altitude  of  1,7-40  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  protected  by  the  mountains  from  sea-coast  winds. 


One  pint  contains. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  soda.   

Carbonate  of  potassa .... 
Carbonate  of  magnesia. . 

Carbonate  of  iron .    

Carbonate  of  manganese 

Carbonate  of  lime 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Silica 

Alumina 

Organic  matter 

Total 

Free  carbonic  acid 


Seltzer  Spring. 

64.8°  F. 
W.  B.  Rising. 


Grains. 

1.109 
0.047 
2.584 
0.115 
trace 
4.345 
0.090 
0.655 
0.195 
trace 


9.140 
Cubic  in. 
26.5 


Dutch. 

70.5°  F. 

W.  B.  Rising. 


Grains. 

1.590 
0.073 
5.010 
0.122 
trace 
4.975 
0.207 
0.890 
0.014 
trace 


12.881 
Cubic  in. 
23.1 


Magic. 

82.4°  F. 

W.  B.  Rising. 


Grains. 


1.887 
0.053 
5.204 
0.098 
trace 
4.377 
0.160 
0.924 
0.021 
trace 


12.724 
Cubic  in. 
19.6 


Borax  Springs,  in  Lake  County,  by  cars  from  Yallejo  to  Calistoga, 
thence  by  stage  to  Lower  Lake,  and  by  private  conveyance.  One  pint 
contains  (J.  A.  Veatch): 


Solids.  , 

Carbonate  of  soda, 
Carbonate  of  ammonia, 
Chloride  of  sodium, 
Iodide  of  magnesium, 
Biborate  of  soda,  . 
Alumina, 
Silicic  acid, 
Matters  volatile  at  red  heat,  . 

Total,  .... 

Carbonic  acid, 9.60  cubic  inches. 


Grains. 
6.671 
8.613 

10.577 
0.011 

12.911 
0.157 
1.039 
8  221 

48.190 


246 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE. 


"  These  substances  being  calculated  as  anhydrous  salts  and  borax, 
containing  47  per  cent  of  water  when  crystallized,  cause  12.911  grains  in 
the  above  analysis  to  be  equal  to  24.417  of  commercial  borax.  There  are 
probably  no  springs  in  the  world  which  contain  so  large  a  per  cent  of 
ammoniacal  salts  as  these/' '  Borax  Lake,  which  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
Veatch  in  1859,  is  two  miles  south  of  the  Springs.  When  filled  up  by 
the  winter  rains,  it  is  over  a  mile  long  and  nearly  half  a  mile  wide,  and 
the  mud  at  the  bottom  contains  18  per  cent  of  borax. 

St.  Helena  White  Sulphur  Springs,  in  Napa  County,  twelve  miles 
distant  by  rail  from  Calistoga  Springs,  are  saline-sulphur  waters,  with 
sufficient  sulphate  of  soda  to  render  them  mildly  aperient. 


One  pint  contains. 

No.  2 

89.6°  Fahr. 

Prof.  Le  Coute. 

No.  6 

86°  Fahr. 

Prof.  Le  Coute. 

No.  7 

69  8°  Fahr. 

Prof.  Le  Coute. 

Solids. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Grains. 

0.077 
0.156 
2.715 
0.108 
0.145 
1.032 
0.331 

Grains. 

0.070 
0.301 
2.955 

0.277 
0.107 
1.416 
0.231 

Grains. 
0.545 

Chloride  of  sodium 

0.695 

0.779 

Chloride  of  magnesium 

0.081 

Chloride  of  calcium 

Sulphate  of  soda        

0.097 
1.685 

Sulphides  of  soda  and  calcium 

0.232 

Total 

4.564 

Cubic  in. 
0.76 

5.357 

Cubic  in. 
0.53 

4.114 

Cubic  in. 
trace 

Of  thermal  springs  in  California  there  is  a  large  number,  among  the 
most  noted  of  which  are  the  Santa  Barbara  Hot  Sulphur  Springs.  They 
are  situated  at  the  head  of  a  deep  canon  about  five  miles  north  of  Santa 
Barbara,  at  an  elevation  of  1,400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  There 
are  seven  springs,  evidently  containing  different  quantities  of  sulphur 
and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  though  no  reliable  analysis  is  obtainable, 
adaptable  to  different  purposes,  drinking  or  bathing.  The  temperature 
is  from  112°  to  117°,  and  they  have  been  found  very  efficacious  in  the 
treatment  of  some  skin  diseases,  chronic  rheumatism,  and  other  diseases 
amenable  to  sulphur  waters. 

Calistoga  Hot  Springs,  in  Napa  County,  from  Vallejo  direct  by  rail. 
There  are  about  seventy  springs,  varying  in  temperature  from  95°  to 
212°  ¥.,  and  distributed  over  an  area  of  upwards  of  one  hundred  acres. 
The  waters  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  bathing  and  swimming, 
the  appointments  being  elaborate.  There  are  also  moor  or  mineral  mud 
baths,  similar  to  those  of  Marienbad  and  Franzensbad,  in  Bohemia.  The 


1  "  The  Natural  Wealth  of  California." 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,   OF   THE    pacific   BLOPE. 


247 


region  round  about  is  full  of  interest,  and  Oaliatogathe  point  of  departure 
for  many  interesting  places.  The  Petrified  Forest  is  about  live  miles 
distant  to  the  southwest. 

Paso  Robles  Hot  Springs,  San  Luis  Obispo  County,  from  San 
Francisco  by  rail  to  Soledad,  one  hundred  and  forty-three  miles,  thence 
by  stage  to  the  Springs. 


One  pint  contains. 


Main  Spring. 

112°  Fahr. 

Prof.  Thos.  Price. 


Solids. 

Carbonate  of  soda 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Sulphate  of  potassa 

Sulphate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Protoxide  of  iron 

Iodides  and  bromides. . 

Alumina 

Silica 

Organic  matter , 

Total 

Gases. 

Carbonic  acid 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen 


Grains. 

3.364 
0.057 
2.830 
0.092 
0.818 
0.334 
0.037 
traces 
0.023 
0.046 
0.171 

8.072 
Cubic  in. 

2.31 

Saturated. 


Mud  Spring. 

122°  Fahr. 

Prof.  Thos.  Price. 


Grains. 

0.543 
0.323 
10.047 
trace 
4.281 
1.864 


0.116 
0.361 


17.535 

Cubic  in. 

10.53 
Saturated. 


These  springs  are  situated  in  a  valley  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Santa  Lucia  Mountains,  and  are  well  appointed.  There  are  over  twenty 
sulphur  baths,  and  a  mud-bath  for  the  thorough  application  of  sulphur 
baths  to  all  the  conditions  desired. 

Arroiu-head  Hot  Springs,  San  Bernardino,  in  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  are  nine  miles  from  Colton,  a  station  on  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific Railroad,  two  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  midst 
of  magnificent  scenery.  The  temperature  of  the  spring  waters  is  from 
140°  to  210°  F. ;  no  analysis;  and  the  surroundings  unimproved.  The  sit- 
uation has  remarkable  natural  advantages  at  all  seasons,  and  if  the 
springs  are  of  value,  it  seems  destined  to  be  one  of  the  most  desirable  re- 
sorts in  the  State. 

Skagg's  Hot  Springs,  in  Sonoma  County,  twenty  miles  by  stage  from 
Healisburg,  a  station  on  San  Francisco  and  Northern  Pacific  Railroad, 
are  said  to  contain  sulphur,  iron,  and  borax;  temperature  128°  to  140° 
Fahr.  No  analysis.  "  The  canon  in  which  the  hotel  is  located  contains 
several  trout  streams  affording  excellent  fishing,"  and  other  surround- 
ings are  described  as  attractive. 

The  Geyser  Spa  Springs,  in  Sonoma  County,  are  scarcely  less  wonder- 


248 


TOPOGRAPHY,    ETC.,    OF   THE    PACIFIC    SLOPE. 


ful  than  those  of  Wyoming.  They  are  reached  from  San  Francisco  by 
rail  to  Cloverdale,  thence  twelve  miles  by  stage.  They  are  situated  in  a 
canon  half  a  mile  long,  from  one  to  two  rods  width  at  the  bottom,  and 
fourteen  hundred  feet  in  depth.  From  the  bottom  of  this  the  banks  ascend 
at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  their  surface  for  the  most  part  being  cov- 
ered with  a  whitish  residuum  of  extinct  geysers — bleached  by  the  sun 
and  rains  of  scores  of  summers  and  winters.  But  all  along  at  wide  in- 
tervals are  jets  of  steam  from  springs  still  bubbling  in  hidden  recesses. 
The  water  is  said  to  contain  alum,  iron,  sulphur,  and  Epsom  salts.  It 
is  of  all  temperatures,  from  90°  to  steam  heat.  The  only  analysis  ob- 
tainable is  the  following: 

One  pint  contains   (F.    W.  Hatch,    M.D.,  "  Second    Biennial  Eeport 
of  California  State  Board  of  Health  "): 


Solids. 

Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda, 

.      2.036 

Carbonate  of  magnesia, 

0.726 

Carbonate  of  iron 

.      0.475 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

0.570 

Chloride  of  sodium 

.       1.245 

Sulphate  of  soda, 

0.425 

Silica,            ..... 

.       0.275 

Loss,        ..... 

0.040 

Total,            .            . 

.       5.792 

Harbines  Springs,  Lake  County,  twenty  miles  north  of  Calistoga 
and  four  miles  west  of  Middletown,  in  a  Avild  and  picturesque  canon  of 
the  Coast  Eange  Mountains. 

This  water  is  thermal,  118°  to  120°  Fahr.,  and  said  to  be  highly 
charged  with  sulphur,  soda,  iron,  magnesia,  the  sulphur  predominat- 
ing. No  analysis.  Used  chiefly  for  bathing  purposes,  and  of  consider- 
able repute  for  such  diseases  as  this  class  of  waters  is  usually  prescribed. 

Paraiso  Springs,  Monterey  County,  at  an  elevation  of  1,400  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  at  the  head  of  a  canon  in  the  Coast  Eange^ 
Mountains,  in  view  of  the  Salinas  plains  below.  Accessible  via  South- 
ern Pacific  Eailroad  to  Solidad,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  thence 
seven  miles  by  stage.  High  mountains  rise  on  three  sides  of  the  springs, 
while  the  plains  below,  traversed  by  the  Salinas  and  Arroyo  Sec©  Eivers, 
extend  to  the  G-abilan  Mountains  beyond.  The  region  is  exceedingly 
picturesque  and  healthy,  and  of  growing  repute  as  a  resort  for  con- 
sumptives. The  waters  are  thermal,  and  said  to  resemble  the  famous. 
Carlsbad,  of  Germany.     One  pint  contains  (118°  Fahr.): 


i"i BAPHY,    ETC.,   OF  THE    PACIFIC   SLOPE.  249 

Solids.  Grains. 

( iarbonate  of  Boda,         ...... 

Carbonate  o£  lime,   .  .  .  .  .  ,0.11 

Chloride  of  potassium,  .  .  .  .  .  0.04 

i  Ihloride  of  sodium,  ......      0.44 

Sulphate  of  soda,  ......  4.44 

Sulphate  of  Lime,        .....*.      0.54 

Magnesia,  .......  trace 

Alumina  and  iron,    .......      0.20 

Silica,        ........  0.32 

Organic  matter,         .......       0.65 

Total 7.8a 

There  is  also  a  warm  sulphur  spring,  114°  Fahr.,  said  to  contain  a 
largo  percentage  of  sulphate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  lime,  and  carbonate 
of  magnesia,  \\i;h  peroxide  of  iron  and  sulphate  of  potassa.  No  analy- 
sis. "  Medicated "  and  mud  baths  are  also  provided,  and  in  popular 
use. 

Seigler  Springs,  in  Lake  County,  accessible  from  San  Francisco  and 
Sacramento  by  boat  to  Vallejo,  thence  by  rail  to  Calistoga,  and  thence 
by  stage  to  Seigler  Valley.  Seigler  Valley  is  a  basin  surrounded  by  pic- 
turesque mountains  from  1,500  to  4,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
on  one  of  which  the  springs  are  situated.  The  spring  waters  are  of  va- 
rious temperatures,  from  icy  coldness  to  boiling  heat,  and  of  "  different 
flavors  and  colors,"  but  no  analysis  has  been  made.  The  region  is  salu- 
tary, but  deficient  in  local  improvements. 

Summit  Soda  Springs,  Alpine  County,  accessible  from  San  Fran- 
cisco via  Central  Pacific  Eailroad,  two  hundred  and  forty-three  miles, 
to  Summmit  Station,  thence  to  the  Springs  by  private  conveyance.  Al- 
titude 7,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  surrounded  by  mountains 
from  12,000  to  15,000  feet  altitude,  and  said  to  be  an  exceptionally  desir- 
able resort  for  those  to  whom  a  rarefied  air  is  desirable. 

One  pint  of  the  water  contains  ("Second  Biennial  Report  California 
State  Board  of  Health  *'): 

Solids.  Grains. 

Carbonate  of  soda,        ......  1.187 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,     ......  0.525 

Carbonate  of  lime,        ......  3.751 

Chloride  of  sodium,            ......  3.277 

Oxide  of  iron,    .......  0.218 

Potassa,       ........  trace 

Silica 0.257 

Alumina,      .....                         .            .  0.218 

Total 9.433 

Carbonic  acid,  23.29  cubic  inches. 


THE  WEATHER. 


OIIAPTEE  XIX. 
THE  WEATHER.' 

MONTHLY  AND  ANNUAL  MEAN  PRESSURE,  TEMPERATURE,  IIUMIDITY, 
I'KD  N'lTATION,  PREVAILING  WINDS  AND  STORMS,  AND  ATMO- 
SPHERIC   ELECTRICITY. 

It  will  be  observed,  in  the  series  of  charts,  one  for  each  month,  the 
range  of  the  barometer  is  shown  by  continuous  isobaric  or  barometrical 

lines, ,  and  the  course  of  storms  by  the  termination  of  such 

lines  in  arrow-heads,  and  roman  numerals;  the  temperature  is  shown  by 

broken  isothermal  liaes, ;  the  course  of  the  winds  by  arrows; 

and  the  precipitation  or  rainfall  by  dotted  lines  and  circles,  shaded, 
•with  numbers  designating  the  days  of  the  month  on  which  the  rain-fall 
occurred. 

The  Charts  he  represented  are  the  combined  observations  of  the  Signal 
Service  for  each  month  respectively;  but  for  a  full  appreciation  of  the 
information  they  convey,  they  should  be  studied  in  conjunction  with  the 
tabulated  statistics  of  their  several  parts  for  a  series  of  years,  in  Chapter 
XIV. 

1.  MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,   JULY,    1880. 
BAROMETRIC    PRESSURE. 

The  general  distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure,  as  reduced  to  sea- 
level,  for  the  month  of  July,  1880,  over  the  United  States  and  Canada  is 
shown  by  isobaric  lines  on  the  Chart.  At  a  few  out-lying  stations  the  means 
are  given  in  figures  indicating  English  inches.  The  pressure  is  found 
to  preserve  much  the  same  general  distribution  that  it  had.  during  June, 
the  regions  of  highest  barometer  being  over  the  Southern  States  and 
Northern  Pacific  region,  while  the  lowest  barometer  means  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Red  River  of  the  North  and  Sacramento  valleys. 

Departures  from  the  normal  values  for  July. — The  means  for  the 
present  month,  when  compared  with  the  average  July  means  for  the  past 
years,  show  a  remarkable   uniformity.     Along  the   immediate  Atlantic 

1  Abstract  from  Reports  of  Gen'l  W.  B.  Hazen,  Chief  Signal  Officer,  U.  S. 
Army   1881. 


252  THE   WEATHER. 

and  Texas  coasts  from  Iowa  to  lower  Michigan,  and  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains the  pressure  is  slightly  helow  the  normal,  the  greatest  deviations 
being  0.05  of  an  inch  at  Charleston,  Chicago,  and  on  the  summit  of 
Pike's  Peak  and  0.06  at  Wood's  Holl;  elsewhere  the  means  are  slightly 
above  normal,  the  largest  excesses  being  0. 04  inch  at  Cairo,  Cincinnati, 
Detroit,  and  Albany,  and  0.06  at  Duluth. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  local  barometric  ranges,  as  reduced  to  sea- 
level,  have  been  exceedingly  small  over  the  entire  country.  They  are 
least  along  the  southern  border  and  increase  very  slowly  northwards. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Eight  areas  of  high  barometer  are  de- 
scribed. None  of  them  present  any  very  interesting  features.  The 
maximum  pressures,  as  reduced  to  sea-level,  over  the  United  States  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  were  30.48  at  Umatilla  and  30.37  at  Portland 
during  the  presence  of  high  area  No.  IV.,  and,  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, 30.30  at  Denver  during  the  presence  of  the  same  area,  and  30.29 
at  Marquette  during  the  presence  of  area  No.  VIII.  The  lowest  tempe- 
ratures of  the  month,  in  general,  accompanied  areas  Nos.  V.  and  VIII. 

Areas  of  loiu  barometer. — Twelve  areas  of  low  barometer  are  described, 
but  apart  from  the  local  thunder  and  hail  storms,  by  which  some  of  them 
were  accompanied,  are  devoid  of  any  special  interest.  Although  the 
pressure  along  the  Pacific  coast  during  the  early  history  of  low  areas  Nos- 
III.,  IV.,  VI.,  and  XII.,  experienced  decided  decrease,  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  trace  any  of  these  areas  back  to  the  Pacific.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  centres  of  areas  No.  IX.  and  XI.,  both  of  which — the  latter 
during  the  whole  and  the  former  during  the  early  portion  of  its  history 
— were  very  poorly  defined,  the  tracks  of  all  the  centres  lie  to  the  north 
of  the  35th  parallel.  No.  IV.  as  area  No.  X.,  moved  slowly  eastward, 
with  its  centre  to  the  south  of  Newfoundland,  but  on  the  29th  it  had 
apparently  dissipated.  Thence  to  the  end  of  June,  light  winds  and 
moderate  pressures  were  reported. 

TEMPERATURE   OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  July,  1881,  is  shown  by  iso- 
therms. The  temperature  during  July  was  below  the  normal  over  the 
whole  of  the  United  States,  except  along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  at  San 
Francisco.  For  the  normal  temperatures,  refer  to  tables,  Chapter  XIV. 
This,  in  connection  with  the  average  high  mean  temperatures  recorded 
for  the  majority  of  districts  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  since  the 
month  of  October,  1878,  is  very  interesting. 

PRECIPITATION. 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall,  for  July,  1880,  is  shown  on  the 
chart  as  accurately  as  possible,  from  about  500  reports.  The  table  on 
this  chart  shows  the  average  precipitation  for  the  several  districts  com- 
pared with  the  normal  values.     The  rain-fall  has  been  above  the  nor- 


THE    vvi.  mini;.  2  53 

in-- 1  along  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coast,  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and 
Opper  Lake  region,  about  normal  i  ver  the  Lower  Lakes  and  Lower  Mis- 
souri valley,  and  below  aorma]  elsewhere.  The  characteristic  featun 
the  rains  during  the  month  have  been  (1)  their  local  nature,  (2)  their 
slun-t  duration,  and  (3)  their  copiousness.  Thus,  in  Kansas  and  .Mis- 
souri, while  heavy  nfins  fell  during  the  first  few  days  of  the  month, 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  month  both  States  suffered  from  drought. 
In  the  paragraph  on  specially  heavy  rains,  some  remarkable  records  will 
be  found,  among  winch  may  be  noted  a  heavy  rain-fall  of  14,  inches  in 
8  minutes  at  Paterson,  X.  J. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:  New  England,  11  to  19;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  11  to 
18;  South  Atlantic  States,  9  to  19;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  11  to  21;  West- 
ern Gulf  States,  7  to  14;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  G  to  16;  Lower 
Lake  region,  10  to  19;  Upper  Lake  region,  13  to  21;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  8  to  14;  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  9  to  12;  Red  River  of  the  North 
Valley,  8  to  11;  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  slope,  7  to  11;  Texas,  4  to  16, 
Rocky  Mountains,  7  to  24;  Middle  Plateau,  0  to  4;  California,  0  to  2; 
Oregon,  3  to  9. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varies  in  New  England  from  9  to  14; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  5  to  12;  South  Atlantic  States,  5  to  16;  Eastern 
Gulf  States,  2  to  12;  Western  Gulf  States,  2  to  10;  Ohio  Valley  and 
Tennessee,  3  to  10;  Lower  Lake  region,  3  to  8;  Upper  Lake  region,  1 
to  9;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  2  to  8;  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  2  to  5; 
Red  River  of  the  North  Valley,  2  to  3;  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  slope, 
3  to  9;  Texas,  3  to  16;  Rocky  Mountains,  2  to  10;  Mid/lle  Plateau,  1 
to  4;  California,  0  to  3. 

Hail. — Hail  fell  frequently  throughout  the  month.  At  Big  Creek, 
Mo.,  1st;  Wright  Co.,  Mo.,  1st;  Springfield,  111.,  1st;  Dongola,  Union 
Co.,  111.,  1st;  Harrisonville,  Mo.,  2d;  Cheyenne,  3d;  Statesville,  X.  C. 
14th;  Wellsboro  and  Potter  Co.,  Pa.,  16th;  Massahessic,  N.  H.,  16th; 
Manchester,  N.  H.,  16th;  Genoa,  Neb.,  17th;  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  18th. 
Great  damage  was  caused  to  crops  near  Spenceport,  Lewiston,  and  Gas- 
port;  Trenton,  N.  J.,  20th;  Medina,  Mich.,  23d;  Norwalk,  O.,  23d; 
Wanpaca,  Wis.,  26th;  Stephen's  Point,  Wis.,  26th;  Buzzard's  Bay, 
Monument  Beach,  and  Agawam,  Mass.,  29th;  Fort  Adams,  R.  I.,  29th. 

Snow  fell  on  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  9th,  10th,  13th  to  17th, 
19th,  20th,  21st,  *3d  to  26th,  28th.  On  the  summit  of  Mount  Wash- 
ington, 29th. 

Droughts. — New  York:  Waterburg,  1st  to  10th,  drought  severe. 
Massachusetts:  Westboro,  1st  to  12th,  great  need  of  rain.  Illinois:  Au- 
gusta, 20th  to  30th,  very  dry.  Kansas:  Wellington,  21st  to  31st;  all 
vegetation  suffering.  Georgia:  Gainesville,  31st,  crops  suffering  severely; 
Missouri:  Louisiana,  31st,  cisterns  generally  empty  and  creeks  dried  up; 
Glasgoiv,  31st,  many   springs  stopped  running.     The  Missouri  weather 


254  THE    WEATHER. 

service  reports  drought  very  severe  in  the  north,  northeast,  and  central 
sections  of  the  State,  vegetation  damaged. 

RELATIVE   HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for»the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  New  England,  from  62  to  87;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  59  to  88; 
South  Atlantic  States,  62  to  80;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  65  to  73;  Western 
Gulf  States,  64  to  76;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  60  to  78;  Lower  Lake 
region,  61  to  71;  Upper  Lake  region,  67  to  77;  Upper  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, 61  to  69;  Missouri  Valley,  59  to  62;  Red  River  of  the  North  Valley, 
69  to  73;  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  slope,  54  to  73,  Texas,  62  to  77; 
Middle  Plateau,  17  to  33,  California,  31  to  82;  Oregon,  57  to  69;  High 
stations  report  the  following  averages  not  corrected  for  altitude:  Pike's 
Peak,  71;  Mount  Washington,  82;  Virginia  City,  37;  Denver,  47,  and 
Santa  Ee,  40. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  directions  of  the  wind  during  July,  1880,  is  shown  by 
arrows,  flying  with  the  wind,  on  the  chart.  To  the  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  the  predominating  winds  have  been  southerly,  with  an  east- 
erly trend  over  Texas,  and  a  westerly  one  from  the  Eastern  Gulf  and 
Atlantic  coasts  to  the  Lake  region.  At  the  Rocky  Mountain  stations, 
over  the  Middle  and  Northern  Plateau  districts  and  North  Pacific 
region,  the  directions  are  northwesterly.  On  the  summit  of  Mount 
Washington,  N.  H.,  the  direction  is  N.W.,  and  the  continuous  record 
of  the  wind  velocity  shows  a  total  monthly  movement  of  17,943  miles; 
the  maximum  hourly  velocity  during  the  month  was  N.W.,  72  miles  on 
the  10th.  The  same  data  for  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak  is  S.W.,  8,493 
miles,  and  S.W.,  44  miles  on  the  10th.  Maximum  velocities  exceeding 
50  miles  per  hour  were  recorded  at  Umatilla  (S.W.,  52,  on  the  18th); 
North  Platte  (N.W.,  80,  on  the  3d);  and  Chincoteague  (S.W.,  53,  on 
the  1st). 

Local  storms. — Jacksonburg,  Ohio,  2d,  4  p.m.,  small  tornado  passed 
two  miles  south  of  village,  in  a  direction  from  S.W.  to  N.E.;  width  of 
track  about  60  rods.  "  There  were  two  inverted  cones  of  vapor,  one 
reaching  from  the  clouds  nearly  to  the  earth,  and  then  joining  the  apex 
of  the  lower  one,  extending  upward  from  the  ground.  During  its  pas- 
sage it  was  accompanied  by  a  noise  similar  to  the  violent  escape  of  steam. 
Sheaves  of  wheat  and  many  other  objects  were  drawn  upwards  and 
quickly  lost  sight  of.  The  ground  over  which  the  storm  passed  appeared 
as  if  drenched  by  a  flood."  Cairo,  111.,  2d,  1.35  p.m,  very  heavy  wind- 
storm, lasting  about  15  minutes,  unroofing  buildings  and  blowing  down 
fences  and  trees.  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  2d,  severe  wind-storm,  blowing 
down  trees  and  fences.      3d,  6.25   to  6.47    p.m.,  severe  N.W.   storm, 


i  in:   w  katiikk.  255 

daring  which  the  wind  reached  a  velocity  of  GO  miles  per  hour  tor  a 
period  <>f  :>  minutes,  and  averaged  48  miles  for  l">  minutes,  unroofing 
buildings  and  uprooting  tree.-;  damage  $1,500.  Reports  from  Walker 
ami  Catoosa  Counties,  in  northern  (ieorgia,  show  exceedingly  violent 
storms  no  this  date,  and  great  loss  to  agricultural  interests.  Columbia, 
8.  0.,  5th,  violent  tornado,  unroofing  buildings,  uprooting  trees,  and 
destroying  crops  and  fences.  Clear  Creek,  Neb.,  7th,  4.30  P.M.,  violent 
tornado  approached  from  the  southwest,  passing  about  3  miles  north  of 
Btation;  15  to  20  buildings  were  destroyed  and  great  damage  caused  to 
crops.  A  Large  quantity  of  water  was  reported  to  have  been  taken  out 
of  the  Platte  River  as  the  storm  crossed  it.  Hanover,  N.  II.,  lGth, 
afternoon,  severe  tornado  passed  over  southeastern  part  of  village; 
••many  buildings  unroofed,  several  literally  torn  to  pieces;  trees  all 
along  the  course  of  the  storm  were  torn  up  by  the  roots,  and  large 
branches  were  twisted  off  and  carried  long  distances.  Course,  8.W.  to 
X.K.,  and  path  of  destruction  about  2  miles  long  and  200  rods  wide.'* 
Portsmouth,  N.  C,  28th,  5.30  p.m.,  whirlwind  struck  the  beach  on  south 
side  of  inlet,  forming  dense  pillar  of  sand  with  rotary  motion  from  right 
to  left,  and  moving  from  S.E.  to  N.W.,  a  distance  of  3  miles.  It  then 
suddenly  receded  southeastward  to  the  sea,  where  it  disappeared. 
Diameter  of  whirl,  30  yards. 

The  observer  at  Yreka,  Cal.,  reports  the  following  heavy  local  storms 
near  that  place:  July  5th,  from  3.30  to  7  p.m.,  a  violent  storm  passed  from 
S.  to  N.,  about  4  miles  wide,  deluging  the  country  with  water;  it  then 
seemed  to  turn  and  pass  to  the  S.,  and  when  about  4  miles  east  of  this 
place,  the  precipitation  was  so  great  that  the  water  seemed,  to  roll  along, 
through  otherwise  dry  and  nearly  level  gulches,  to  the  djepth  of  4  or  5 
feet,  washing  everything  before  it.  The  storm  seemed  to  extend  about 
10  miles  in  length.  Shasta  River  rose  2  feet  in  a  few  minutes.  July 
16th,  heavy  storm  15  miles  northeast  of  this  place;  "cloud-burst," 
moving  rocks  weighing  over  1,000  pounds;  and  on  17th,  another  heavy 
fall  of  water  in  the  same  place. 

On  the  18th,  a  severe  thunder-storm  passed  eastward  from  north- 
eastern Oregon  into  Idaho,  during  the  progress  of  which  a  destructive 
"  cloud-burst "  occurred  on  West  Butter  (or  Bitter)  Creek,  near  Pen- 
dleton, which  will  be  found  noted  under  Floods.     The  observers  at  the 
surrounding  Signal  Service  stations  report  as  follows:  Umatilla,  Oregon, 
"sand-storm  set  in  from  the  southwest  at  3.50  p.m.,  and  for  15  minutes 
the  wind  velocity  reached  52  miles  per  hour;  rain  fell  from  3.58  to  4.25 
p.m.,  and  several  flashes  of  lightning  were  observed. "     Dayton,  Wash., 
light  rain  from  3.30  to  5  p.m.,  "a  heavy  thunder-storm  passed  over  the 
mountains  about  15  miles  south  of  station  at  5  p.m."     Pomeroy,  Wash., 
"  sudden  heavy  wind  from  5.30  to  6  p.m."     Boise  City,  IdaTio,  "light 
rain  from  4.10  to  4.15  p.m.,  accompanied  by  zigzag  lightning  and  loud 
thunder." 


256  THE    WEATHER. 

Waterspouts. — Key  "West,  12th,  at  6  p.m.  a  waterspout  formed  to  the 
southeast  of  station,  in  connection  with  a  very  heavy  thunder-storm  then 
prevailing.  Kittyhawk,  N.  C,  18th,  at  8.30  A.M.  a  waterspout  formed 
over  Albemarle  Sound,  4  miles  from  station.  It  remained  stationary  until 
8.55  a.m.,  and  no  rotary  motion  could  be  discerned.  During  this  time, 
two  smaller  ones  partly  formed  near  to  the  main  one,  reaching  nearly  to 
the  clouds,  and,  after  swaying  backwards  and  forwards  for  a  short  time, 
finally  disappeared.  Portsmouth,  N.  C,  28th,  at  5.15  p.m.  three  water- 
spouts formed  in  Ocracoke  Inlet,  making  a  complete  column  of  spray 
extending  from  sea  to  cloud,  and  moving  slowly  from  S.W.  to  N.E. 
New  Bedford,  Mass.,  29th,  5  p.m.,  a  waterspout  formed  in  the  cove 
between  Sconticut  Neck  and  Mattapoisett  Neck.  It  was  at  first  very 
regular  and  straight,  and  connected  with  the  western  edge  of  a  cloud, 
which  was  the  scene  of  a  thunder-shower  of  moderate  extent  and  force. 
Diameter  30  to  40  feet,  and  altitude  about  3,000  feet,  composed  of  spray, 
which  strongly  contrasted  with  the  dark  cloud.  It  moved  slowly  to  the 
southeast,  and  the  portion  midway  from  cloud,  to  bay  advanced  faster 
than  either  the  bottom  or  top,  causing  the  column  to  bend  forward  and 
to  drag  the  lower  portion.  It  disappeared  in  about  20  minutes,  being 
apparently  drawn  upward  into  the  clouds. 

Sand-storms. — Visalia,  Cal.,  25th.  Burkes,  Arizona,  7th,  10th, 
15th,  17th,  24th. 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Thunder-storms  were  reported  in  the  following  States  from  one  or 
more  stations  on  almost  every  day  in  the  month:  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Loui- 
siana, Texas,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Ne- 
braska, Kansas,  Colorado,  and  Washington  Territory.  In  the  following 
States  they  were  reported  on  the  dates  indicated:  Maine:  3d,  7th,  16th, 
20th,  26th  to  29th.  New  Hampshire:  15th,  22d,  26th  to  28th.  Ver- 
mont: 1st,  2d,  3d,  6th,  9th,  10th,  16th,  18th,  20th,  26th  to  29th. 
Massachusetts:  6th,  9th,  10th,  15th,  16th,  20th,  26th,  29th,  and  30th. 
Connecticut:  2d,  3d,  6th,  9th,  10th,  11th,  17th,  20th,  26th,  and  27th. 
West  Virginia:  5th,  10th,  19th,  and  26th.  South  Carolina:  5th,  12th, 
and  17th.  Alabama:  4th,  14th,  and  16th.  Mississippi:  7th,  8th,  10th 
to  16th.  Tennessee:  2d  to  5th,  8th,  10th,  12th,  15th,  19th,  and  27th. 
Kentucky:  1st  to  6th,  9th,  10th,  14th,  and  15th.  Arkansas:  3d,  9th, 
and  15th.  Indian  Territory:  3d,  4th,  18th,  19th,  20th,  and  31st. 
Minnesota:  2d,  7th,  8th  to  13th,  16th,  24th,  28th,  and  31st.  Dakota: 
1st  to  10th,  18th,  20th  to  26th.  Montana:  1st,  4th,  6th,  10th,  11th, 
16th,  25th,  26th,  and  27th.  New  Mexico:  6th,  15th,  and  16th.  Utah: 
22d,  27th,  and  28th.  Nevada:  17th.  Idaho:  6th,  18th,  and  22d. 
Oregon:  5th  and  18th. 

Auroras. — Auroral  displays  were  observed  north  of  the  40th  parallel 


J  ii  1:   u  i.  \  i  mm:.  207 

from  Maine  to  Montana,  on  tho  1st,  5th,  Gth,   11th,  12th,  13th,  14th, 
i:.!h.  liitli.  Kth.  18th,  19th,  20th,  28th,  29th,  and  31st. 

EFFICIENCY    OF    LIGHTNING    CONDXJCTOBS. 

"Direct  evidence  as  to  the  efficiency  of  lightning  conductors  is 
afforded  in  a  government  report  from  Schleswig-Holstein,  which  is 
referred  to  in  a  recent  work  on  the  Bubjecl  by  Mr.  Eli  chard  Anderson. 
Thunder-storms  are  said  to  be  more  numerous  in  Schleswig-Holstein 
than  in  any  other  part  of  Central  or  Northern  Europe,  and  the  danger 
from  lightning  is  correspondingly  increased.  The  attention  of  the  gov- 
ernment insurance  office  was  called  to  the  fact,  that  in  4  out  of  552  cases 
of  claims  on  account  of  damage  from  lightning,  arising  in  eight  years, 
conductors  of  approved  design  had  been  in  use,  and  an  expert,  Dr. 
Iloltz,  of  Greifswald,  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  failure. 
He  found  that  in  every  case  where  a  building  provided  with  a  conductor 
had  been  struck  by  lightning,  the  conductor  was  not  in  an  efficient 
state.  Sometimes  the  point  of  the  rod  was  needlessly  ornamented  with 
gilding,  while  the  underground  connection  with  the  earth,  the  very 
element  of  safety,  was  neglected.  In  the  absence  of  a  proper  ground 
connection,  the  lightning-rod,  instead  of  being  a  protection,  may  prove 
the  means  of  attracting  the  discharge  into  the  building.  A  measure  for 
the  periodical  testing  of  conductors  is  suggested,  for  the  detection  of 
defective  constructions,  interruptions  of  conductivity  by  rusting  or  dis- 
placement, or  of  other  faults  that  may  arise  from  time  to  time."  ' 


1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Julv,  1880,  page  421. 
17       • 


THE   WEATHER. 


THE   WEATHER.  259 


2.  MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,   AUGUST,   1880. 
BABOMETEIC   PRESSURE. 

The  general  distribution  of  the  atmospheric  pressure,  as  reduced  to 
sea-level,  for  the  month  of  August,  1880,  over  the  United  States  and 
Canada  is  shown  by  barometrical  lines  on  the  Chart.  The  region 
of  highest  pressure  is  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  farther  northward 
than  usual,  covering  the  coast  from  New  Jersey  to  Xorth  Carolina  in- 
stead of  being  confined  to  the  South  Atlantic  States.  The  region  of 
lowest  pressures  extends  from  Manitoba  to  Southern  Texas.  On  the 
Pacific  coast,  the  highest  pressure  is,  as  usual,  in  Oregon,  while  the  lowest 
means  are  reported  from  the  interior  valleys. 

Departures  from  the  normal  values  for  August. — The  barometric 
means  for  August,  1880,  when  compared  with  the  average  for  the  past 
eight  years,  show  marked  and  unusual  departures.  Over  New  England, 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  the  Lake  region  (except  the  southern 
half  of  Lake  Michigan)  the  pressures  range  from  .04  inch  to  .01  inch 
above  the  normal,  being  .07  above  at  Marquette,  .09  at  Albany,  and  .10 
at  Burlington.  The  Gulf  States,  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  reported  means  slightly  below 
the  normal,  the  greatest  deficiency  being  reported  from  Punta  Rassa,  .07 
below  the  normal. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  local  barometric  ranges,  reduced  to  sea- 
level,  have  been  very  unusual  and  irregular,  especially  in  those  parts  of 
the  Gulf  States  over  which  the  cyclones  of  August  12th  and  29th  passed, 
where  the  following  ranges  were  reported:  Punta  Rassa,  0.65;  Indianola 
and  Galveston,  0.45;  Cedar  Keys,  0.80;  Pensacola,  0.81;  Mobile,  0.84; 
Laredo,  1.09;  Brownsville,  1.79.  Ranges  exceeding  0.90  are  reported 
from  the  Red  River  of  the  North  Valley,  from  Burlington,  Vt.,  and 
North  Platte,  Nebr.  The  smallest  ranges  in  the  country  were:  Santa 
Fe,  0.24;  Campo,  0.32;  and  Key  West,  0.33. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — During  the  month  of  August,  1880, 
eight  areas  of  high  pressure  prevailed  within  the  limits  of  the  Signal  Ser- 
vice stations.  Nos.  II.  and  VIII.  were  slight  encroachments  of  the  area 
of  high  barometer  from  the  Pacific  ocean.  The  remaining  areas  were 
the  usual  outflows  of  cold  air  moving  southeastward  from  the  Saskatche- 
wan region.  Area  No.  III.  was  marked  by  the  first  frosts  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River. 

Areas  of  low  barometer. — During  the  month,  sixteen  areas  of  low 
pressure  have  occurred  within  the  limits  of  the  Signal  Service  stations, 


260  THE    WEATHER. 

only  ten  of  which  have  been  sufficiently  definite  to  permit  of  charting. 
No  storm  has  been  charted  entirely  across  the  country.  The  marked 
meteorological  feature  of  the  month  has  been  the  advent  of  three  "violent 
cyclonic  storms — a  most  unusual  number.  No.  V.  devastated  the  Texas 
coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  River,  during  the  12th  and  13th. 
In  its  passage  over  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  steamer  San  Salvador,  long 
overdue,  was  probably  lost.  No.  X.,  during  the  18th,  passed  over  Ja- 
maica, where  it  caused  the  loss  of  several  lives,  and  did  immense  damage 
to  shipping,  buildings,  crops,  and  other  property.  No.  XVI.,  the 
cyclone  in  which  the  steamer  City  of  Vera  Cruz  was  lost,  moving  east- 
ward to  the  north  of  the  Bahamas  on  the  28th,  crossed  northern  Florida 
during  the  29th  and  30th.  This  storm  strewed  the  Florida  coast  with 
wrecks,  and  did  great  damage  to  property  and  growing  crops.  As  far  as 
has  been  noted,  the  loss  of  life  was  confined  to  the  crew  and  passengers 
of  the  steamer  City  of  Vera  Cruz. 


TEMPERATURE    OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperatures  for  August,  1880,  are  shown  by  isotherms  on 
the  Chart.  The  average  temperatures  show  a  deficiency  of  temperature 
for  the  entire  country,  except  Tennessee,  the  Ohio,  Upper  Mississippi, 
and  Lower  Missouri  Valleys,  from  which  sections  slight  excesses,  not 
exceeding  1",  were  reported.  Deficiencies  exceeding  1°  are  as  follows: 
Pacific  coast,  about  2°;  Plateau  districts,  from  2°  to  3°;  Saint  Lawrence 
Valley,  2°;  Upper  Missouri  Valley,  4°;  and  Rio  Grande  Valley,  0°. 

Frost. — California :  Lompoc,  18th;  Campo,  30th  and  31st,  injuring 
vegetables.  Colorado:  Hermosa,  30th  and  31st;  Summit,  frequent; 
Pike's  Peak,  2d,  7th,  and  frequent  after  16th.  Connecticut :  New  Lon- 
don, 16th,  light  in  low  lands'  near.  Idaho  :  Boise  City,  25th  and  26th, 
in  low  places.  Maine :  Bangor,  25th  and  26th;  Portland,  27th,  in  sub- 
urbs of  city.  Massachusetts:  Rowe,  16th,  Springfield,  16th  and  29th; 
Westborough,  16th  and  27th;  Boston,  16th,  light  in  suburbs.  Michigan: 
Thornville,  3d,  on  low  grounds.  New  Hampshire :  Auburn  and  Contoo- 
cookville,  16th,  on  low  grounds;  Grafton,  12th  and  26th;  16th,  damag- 
ing corn  in  low  places,  "frost  very  general  throughout  State";  Mount 
Washington,  5th,  6th,  15th,  frost  feathers  3  to  6  inches  long  in  exposed 
places;  10th  to  23d.  New  Jersey :  Freehold,  16th,  5  miles  S.E.  of  sta- 
tion; Linden,  18th.  New  York :  Ardenia,  North  Volney,  and  near  Penn 
Yan,  16th,  Palerno,  16th,  light;  Cooperstown,  Port  Jervis,  and  Nile, 
16th,  and  17th,  injuring  corn,  buckwheat,  and  potatoes  at  latter  place; 
Buffalo,  16th,  on  low  grounds;  Albany,  16th,  on  mountains  near,  damag- 
ing vegetables.  Nevada:  Carson  City,  11th,  26th,  30th  and  31st; 
Winnemucca,  31st. 


Tin:   wkatiii  Et.  2ti 1 


PRECIPITATION". 

The  genera]  distribution  of  rainfall  for  August,  1880,  is  shown  on 
the  chart,  as  accurately  as  possible  from  about  500  reports.     Departures 

exceeding  one  inch  from  the  normal  precipitation  arc  as  follows:  Missouri 
Valley  about  L.20  excess;  Lower  Lake  region,  1.70  excess;  Florida  pen- 
insula. 4.03  excess;  the  Gulf  states  about  1.25  deficiency;  Saint  Law- 
rence Valley  about  1.25  deficiency.  In  Oregon  and  the  southern  part  of 
California  slight  deficiencies  are  reported,  while  in  Northern  and  Central 
California  no  rain  has  fallen.  The  great  excess  in  the  Florida  peninsula 
resulted  from  the  cyclone  of  August  29th;  most  unusual  number  of  heavy 
rains  occurred  during  the  month. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:  New  England,  9  to  1.7;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  9  to 
L6;  South  Atlantic  States,  10  to  19;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  12  to  15; 
Western  Gulf  States,  5  to  18;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  7  to  20;  Lower 
Lake  region,  11  to  17;  Upper  Lake  region,  12  to  16;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  7  to  14;  Missouri  Valley,  9  to  13;  Ked  River  of  the  North  Valley, 
9  to  15;  Texas,  1  to  16;  Eocky  Mountains,  7  to  22;  Middle  Plateau,  J  to 
4;  California,  0  to  2;  Oregon,  4  to  5. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varies  in  New  England  from  2  to  11; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  7  to  19;  South  Atlantic  States,  4  to  18;  Eastern 
Gulf  States,  4  to  11;  Western  Gulf  States,  2  to  9;  Ohio  Valley  and  Ten- 
nessee, 4  to  11;  Lower  Lake  region;  6  to  13;  Upper  Lake  region,  6  to  13; 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  1  to  10;  Missouri  Valley,  7  to  9;  Eed  River  of 
the  North  Valley,  8  to  9;  Texas,  2  to  10;  Rocky  Mountains,  2  to  8; 
Middle  Plateau,  0  to  4;  California,  0  to  5;  Oregon,  1  to  9. 

Hail—  Arizona :  Camp  Verde,  6th.  Colorado:  Summit,  3d,  8th, 
10th,  12th,  15th;  Pike's  Peak,  1st  to  3d,  7th  to  8th,  14th,  and  25th  to 
28th.  Indiana:  New  Corydon,  17th;  Logansport,  2d.  Iowa:  Gutten- 
burg,  16th.  Maine:  Bangor,  10th.  Michigan:  Coldwater,  lTth; 
Lansing,  18th.  Minnesota:  Duluth,  12th.  Nebraska:  De  Soto,  2Tth 
and  31st.  New  Hampshire:  Mount  Washington,  12th.  ■  New  Jersey: 
South  Orange,  11th;  Sommerville,  25th,  one-third  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. Xorth  Carolina:  Highlands,  17th.  Ohio:  Bethel,  Jacksonburg, 
and  Norwalk,  11th.  Pennsylvania:  Hulmeville,  25th.  Wyoming: 
Cheyenne,  26. 

Snow. — Colorado :  Summit,  1st  to  3d,  one  inch.  Nevada :  Winne- 
mucca,  29th,  on  neighboring  mountains.  Utah :  Salt  Lake  City,  in  the 
mountains  near,  on  the  30th.  Washington  Territory :  Pomeroy,  29th, 
on  hill  near  town. 

Droughts.—  Waveland,  Ind.,  to  August  23d,  very  severe.  Creswell, 
Kans.,  severe  to  18th.  Auburn,  N.  H.,  31st,  severe,  "vegetation  suffer- 
ing badly,  streams  drying  up."  Winnemucca,  Nev.,  17th,  the  "  Sink'' 
of  the  Humboldt  completely  dry;  said  to  be  the  first  time  within  the 


262  THE   WEATHER. 

memory  of  man.  Des  Moines,  15th,  "crops  sufferings."  Wellington, 
Kans.,  27th.  Carrollton,  111.,  and  Independence,  Mo.,  to  August  20th, 
corn  and  other  crops  severely  damaged.  The  Missouri  weather  review 
states  that  the  entire  State  suffered  from  drought  till  the  20th. 


RELATIVE    HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  New  England,  from  63  to  83;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  63  to  89; 
South  Atlantic  States,  71  to  82;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  69  to  78;  Western 
Gulf  States,  61  to  79;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  63  to  78;  Lower  Lake 
region,  65  to  77;  Upper  Lake  region,  71  to  78;  Tipper  Mississippi  Valley, 
60  to  70;  Missouri  Valley,  60  to  65;  Eed  River  of  the  North  Valley,  73 
to  76;  Texas,  60  to  79;  Middle  Plateau,  16  to  25;  California,  32  to  82; 
Oregon,  44  to  69.  High  stations  report  the  following  averages  not  cor- 
rected for  altitude:  Pike's  Peak,  73.6;  Mount  Washington,  80.3;  Vir- 
ginia City,  36.9;  Denver,  47.2;  Santa  Fe,  49.2. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  directions  of  the  wind  during  August,  1880,  are  shown 
by  arrows,  flying  with  the  wind  on  the  Chart.  From  the  Mississippi 
Valley  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  predominating  winds  have  been 
southerly,  except  in  the  northern  half  of  the  Pacific  coast  region,  where 
they  were  northerly.  In  New  England,  the  Lower  Lake  region,  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  they  have  been  south-west- 
erly, except  at  a  few  scattered  stations.  In  the  South  Atlantic  States 
and  Tennessee  they  were  variable,  with  the  easterly  points  predominating. 
At  most  stations  in  the  Upper  Lake  region  the  prevailing  winds  were 
northerly.  On  Mount  Washington  the  prevailing  wind  was  N.W.  and 
the  maximum  velocity  N.W.  60,  on  the  2d;  maximum  velocities  of  50 
miles  or  more  occurred  as  follows:  10th,  20th,  23d,  25th,  28th,  and  20th, 
N.W.  50;  24th,  W.  52.  On  Pike's  Peak  the  total  movement  was  8,445, 
prevailing  direction  S.W.,  maximum  velocity  64  S.  W.  Maximum  veloci- 
ties exceeding  50  miles  were  reported  as  follows:  Indianola,  64  N.E.  13th; 
Cedar  Keys,  64  N.E.  on  the  30th;  Yankton,  56  S.W.  on  the  16th  and 
Kittyhawk  on  the  12th;  Punta  Eassa,  56  S.W.  on  the  29th,  and  56  (72 
miles  for  5  minutes)  S.  on  the  30th;  Brownsville,  Tex.,  48  miles  on  the 
12th,  when  anemometer  was  blown  down;  exact  maximum  unknown. 

Local  storms. — West  Randolph,  Vt.,  on  the  12th,  violent  hail-storm, 
with  wind  and  heavy  rain,  width  of  path,  l£  miles;  stones  as  large  as 
butternuts;  over  2,000  panes  of  glass  destroyed.  Versailles,  Ohio,  on 
the  12th,  very  destructive  hail-storm,  seriously  injuring  tobacco  and 
other  crops.    18th,  violent  tornado,  14  miles  S.W.  of  Fargo,  Dak.;  track 


Tin:    u  i  \  i  in  ft.  268 

two  miles  wide,  extending  across  the  southern  pari  of  Case  County;  one 
man  killed,  three  severely  injured,  many  houses  blown  down.  August 
2 nil,  violent  local  storm  one  mile  wide  and  seven  miles  long,  .-wept  . 
Qreal  NTeok,  Little  Neck,  and  Oreedmoor,  Long  [sland,  damaging  many 
buildings  and  injuring  crops.  In  addition  to  the  damage  done  by  the 
eyclone  at  and  near  Brownsville,  L2th  and  1 3th,  the  following  are  re- 
ported: San  Diego,  Tex.,  many  buildings  unroofed;  at  Collins  and  Ban- 
quette, railway  bridges  damaged;  Goliad,  Tex.,  greal  damage  to  build- 
ings. Fort  Mojave,  Ariz.,  22d,  most  violent  storm,  barracks  blown 
down,  four  men  killed  and  five  wounded. 

Water-spouts.  —  Near  Hat  Creek,  Wyo.,  on  the  29th,  2  p.m.,  moved 
from  N.  to  S.  for  ten  minutes  in  a  zigzag  course.  Red  Canon,  Dak., 
during  night  of  28th,  destroying  telegraph  line  for  eleven  miles. 

Sand-storms. — TucBon,  Ariz.,  3d;  Florence,  Ariz.,  9th;  Winnemucca, 
Nev.,  4th,  10th,  23d,  28th. 


ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Thunder-storms  have  been  reported  in  too  great  numbers  to  permit 
their  enumeration  in  detail.  They  have  occurred  with  greatest  fre- 
quency as  follows:  Georgia:  23d  to  25th.  Illinois:  on  23d,  27th,  and 
31st.  Indiana:  2d,  10th,  20th,  28th  to  30th.  Iowa:  1st,  16th,  17th, 
19th,  23d,  26th,  and  27th.  Kansas:  1st,  2d,  4th,  20th,  24th.  25th, 
27th  to  31st.  Louisiana:  8th  and  13th.  Maine:  21st.  Maryland: 
25th  and  29th.  Massachusetts  :  12th,  21st,  25th,  and  29th.  Michigan  : 
1st,  9th,  10th,  24th,  and  27th.  New  York:  2d,  10th,  24th,  25th,  27th 
to  29th.  North  Carolina:  11th  and  12th.  Ohio:  2d,  10th,  11th,  14th, 
17th,  19th,  20th,  25th,  29th  to  31st.  New  Jersey:  2d,  11th,  12th,  24th, 
25th,  28th,  and  31st.  Nebraska  :  16th,  23d,  24th,  and  26th.  Missouri: 
1st,  16th,  and  31st.  Texas  :  16th  and.  17th.  Pennsylvania  :  2d,  11th, 
19th,  24th,  25th,  28th,  and  29th.  Tennessee :  21st,  23d,  and  27th. 
Vermont:  2d,  9th,  20th,  24th,  and  28th.  Virginia:  3d  and  10th. 
West  Virginia:  28th  and  29th.  Wisconsin:  1st,  20th.  27th.  and  31st. 
On  the  Pacific  coast,  a  thunder-storm  occurred  at  San  Diego,  violent,  on 
the  17th,  at  Portland,  Oreg.,  17th,  and  near  Dayton  on  the  2d:  light- 
ning was  observed  at  Red  Bluff,  Cal.,  on  the  28th. 

Auroras. — Auroras  during  August,  1880,  have  been  frequent,  and 
during  the  12th  and  13th  were  of  remarkable  brilliancy,  as  well  as  wide- 
spread. 


THE   WEATHER. 


in,     w  I  vi  ii  1. 1;.  265 


3.  MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,   SEPTEMBER,    1880. 
BAROMETRIC    PRESSURE. 

The  general  distribution  of  the  atmospheric  pressure,  as  reduced  fco 
sea  level,  for  the  month  of  September,  1880,  over  the  United  States  and 
Canada  is  shown  by  isobaric  lines  on  the  Chart.  At  a  few  out-lying  stations 
the  means  are  given  in  figures  indicating  English  inches.  The  regions 
of  highest  pressures,  as  usual,  include  the  South  Atlantic  States  and 
the  North  Pacific  coast  region.  The  regions  of  lowest  j>ressures  are  the 
valleys  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  and  of  California. 

Departures  from  normal  values  for  September. — The  barometric 
means  for  September,  1880,  when  compared  with  the  average  for  past 
years,  show  but  slight  and  unimportant  departures.  The  New  England 
coast  reports  slight  deficiencies,  amounting  at  Boston  and  Portland  to 
0.05  inch.  In  the  northwest,  Saint  Vincent — where  the  pressure  was 
0.11  below — is  the  only  station  reporting  any  great  departure  from  the 
normal.  In  the  South  Atlantic  States  the  following  excesses  are  re- 
ported: Savannah  and  Jacksonville  0.05,  and  Augusta  0.07,  above  the 
normal. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  local  barometric  ranges,  reduced  to  sea- 
level,  have  been  quite  irregular  but  not  excessive.  The  ranges  along  the 
Gulf  coast  have  been  from  0.20  at  Key  West  to  0.47  at  Mobile  and  New 
Orleans.  In  the  Atlantic  States  the  range  steadily  increased  northward 
from  0.41  at  Jacksonville  to  Central  New  England,  where  the  following 
ranges  occurred  :  Boston,  0.84,  Springfield,  0.86;  and  Albany,  0.87.  In 
the  Upper  Lake  region  the  ranges  were  from  0.65  at  Detroit  to  0.86  at 
Marquette.  In  the  Northwest  the  ranges  were  decidedly  irregular, 
being  0.78  at  Bismarck,  0.88  at  Breckenridge,  and  0.84  (the  largest  in  the 
country)  at  Saint  Vincent.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  following  ranges 
were  reported:  0.24  at  San  Diego,  0.29  at  San  Francisco,  and  0.55  at 
Portland. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — During  September,  1880,  six  areas  of  high 
pressure  prevailed.  No.  I.  was  a  storm  of  marked  severity  in  the  Lake 
region,  where,  during  its  prevalence,  a  number  of  disasters  to  shipping 
occurred.  No.  II.  is  particularly  noticeable  as  having  originated  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  as  having  moved  eastward  across  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  only  extensive  and  damaging  frosts  occurred  in  connection 
with  area  No.  VI.,  during  September  30th  and  October  1st. 

No.  VI. — On  the  28th,  the  barometer  rose  in  the  Upper  Missouri 
Valley;  Fort  Buford  barometer  at   midnight  0.31    above   the   normaL 


%QQ  THE    WEATHEK. 

Moving  southeastward  on  the  afternoon  of  the  29th,  the  ridge  of  highest 
pressure  extended  from  Texas  northward  to  the  Eed  Eiver  of  the  North 
Valley.  On  the  morning  of  the  30th,  the  area  covered  the  Lower  Missis- 
sippi Valley.  At  midnight,  the  area  of  highest  pressure  was  over  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States;  Baltimore  and  Cape  Henry  barometers  0.25 
above  the  normal.  The  passage  of  this  area  was  marked  by  the  mini- 
mum temperatures  for  the  month  for  the  entire  country  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Eiver,  excepting  New  England  and  North  Carolina. 

Areas  of  low  pressure. — Thirteen  such  areas  pertaining  to  the  month 
of  September,  1880,  are  described,  and  the  course  of  eleven  centres  are 
shown  on  the  Chart.  The  tracks  of  areas  VI.  and  VII.  could  not  be 
indicated  with  sufficient  accuracy  and  are  omitted.  Only  one  area,  No. 
IX.,  originating  over  the  Pacific  Ocean,  crossed  the  Eocky  Mountains. 
Area  No.  III.  was  a  storm  of  unusual  severity,  particularly  along 
ihe  New  England,  the  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina  coasts.  Areas  No. 
VIII.  and  XII.  were  severe  storms  which  passed  through  the  Lake 
region. 

No.  I.  was  the  continuation  of  the  Florida  cyclone  described  in  the 
August  review.  Central  in  Mississippi,  the  morning  of  the  1st  it  moved 
northward  with  increasing  pressure  and  was  in  Illinois  the  morning  of 
the  2d,  thence,  by  a  northeastward  track,  passed  down  the  valley  of  the 
Saint  Lawrence  during  the  3d  and  4th.  No  signals  were  displayed  dur- 
ing the  passage  of  this  area.  The  only  cases  of  brisk  winds  reported 
were  :  S.E.  32  at  Delaware  Breakwater,  and  S.  25  at  Cleveland. 


TEMPEKATUEE    OF   THE    AIK. 

The  mean  temperatures  for  September,  1880,  are  shown  by  isotherms 
on  the  Chart.  East  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  an  excess  of  temperature 
has  prevailed  in  New  England,  Canada,  Lower  Lake  region,  and  Middle 
States.  In  the  Missouri  and  Upper  Mississippi  Valleys  and  Upper  Lake 
region  the  mean  temperature  was  normal.  Elsewhere  deficiencies  were 
reported — the  greatest  in  Texas.  Westward  of  the  Eocky  Mountains 
the  temperature  has  been  normal,  or  above,  to  the  north  of  parallel  42°, 
while  to  the  south,  deficiencies  have  been  reported.  That  at  San  Diego, 
3°.  06,  being  the  greatest  departure  from  the  normal  in  the  country. 

The  following  extracts  relating  to  the  temperature  of  the  month  are 
noted  as  of  interest  : 

Eiley,  111.,  mean  temperature  2°  below  average  of  19  years;  Gardiner, 
Me.,  temperature  2°.l  above  mean  of  44  years;  Westborough,  Mass., 
mean  temperature  T  above  that  of  August;  Linden,  N.  J.,  no  frost  dur- 
ing month;  Newark,  N.  J.,  temperature  5°.  9  above  mean  of  37  years; 
Philadelphia,  temperature  6°. 9  above  mean  of  91  years;  Baltimore,  5th, 
two  fatal  sunstrokes. 


I  in     w  ;   \  i  n  i  i:.  L'''»7 


PBEGIPFE  \  ri<i\. 

The  general  distribution  <>f  rain-fall  for  September,  1880,  is  shown  on 
the  Chart  as  accurately  as  possible,  From  about  600  reports.  The  rain- 
fall has  been  normal  in  New  England,  the  Ohio,  Lower  Missouri,  Opper 
.Mississippi,  and  St.  Lawrence  Valleys.  Elsewhere  deficiencies  have  oc- 
curred, except  in  the  Gulf  States,  from  which  districts  excesses  ranging 
from  L.36  in  the  eastern  to  4.24  inches  in  the  western  half  are  reported. 
In  Central  Texas  the  rain-i'all  was  unusually  large,  causing  local  floods, 
which  an1  elsewhere  noticed.  The  rain-fall  was  greatly  deficient  (over  3 
inches)  in  Florida  and  the  South  Atlantic  States.  Less  important 
deficiencies  are  noted  in  the  Lake  region,  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  Min- 
nesota, and  on  the  entire  Pacific  coast. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:  New  England,  G  to  17;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  5  to 
11;  South  Atlantic  States,  5  to  13;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  5  to  19;  "West- 
ern Gulf  States,  11  to  17;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  10  to  17;  Lower 
Lake  region,  8  to  16;  Upper  Lake  region,  11  to  18;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  5  to  10;  Missouri  Valley,  6  to  10;  Bed  Eiver  of  the  North  Val- 
ley, 7  to  13;  Texas,  3  to  17;  Eocky  Mountains,  2  to  11;  Middle  Pla- 
teau, 0  to  5;  California,  0;  Oregon,  3  to  8. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varies  in  New  England  from  4  to  14; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  5  to  10;  South  Atlantic  States,  6  to  12;  East- 
ern Gulf  States,  2  to  13;  Western  Gulf  States,  9  to  13;  Ohio  Valley  and 
Tennessee,  6  to  16;  Lower  Lake  region,  7  to  10;  Upper  Lake  region,  6 
to  13;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  4  to  6;  Missouri  Valley,  5  to  7;  Red 
River  of  the  North  Valley,  5  to  8;  Texas,  0  to  13;  Rocky  Mountains, 
0  to  6;  Middle  Plateau,  0  to  2;  California,  0  to  9;  Oregon,  2  to  6. 

Hail— Colorado :  Pike's  Peak,  1st,  6th,  8th  to  10th,  18th,  21st. 
Summit,  frequent.  Iowa:  Davenport,  19th;  some  stones  over  one-half 
inch  in  diameter,  half  ice,  very  irregular  shape,  with  numerous  conical 
projections;  some  had  cavities  in  centre;  Mt.  Vernon,  15th;  Ames  and 
Yates  Centre,  25th.  Kansas:  Leavenworth,  25th.  Michigan:  Kala- 
mazoo, 29th;  Marquette,  28th.  New  York:  Waterburg,  6th,  28th; 
Dundee,  Buffalo,  Oswego,  and  Rochester,  29th;  North  Volney,  30th. 
Ohio:  Cleveland,  28th,  29th;  very  large  stones;  Margaretta,  29th.  Min- 
nesota :  At  Euclid,  24th;  very  large  hail  over  a  belt  of  country  two 
miles  wide;  one  stone  weighed  12  ounces,  and  the  diameter  of  the  longer 
axis  of  another  was  4  inches;  men  found  it  necessary  to  protect  their 
heads.     Nebraska:  North  Platte,  17th. 

Snow.  —  California  :  Visalia,  24th,  on  mountains  east  of  town.  Col- 
orado: Denver,  25th;  Pike's  Peak,  2d,  9th,  20th,  21st,  25th,  26th;  Col- 
orado Springs,  26th;  Fort  Garland  (7th,  Baldy  and  Sierra  Blanca  cov- 
ered with  snow),  26th.     New  Hampshire:  Mount   Washington,    10th. 


208  THE    WEATHER. 

New  York:  Kochester,  14th.    Michigan:  Fort  Wayne,  29th.     Vermont: 
Mount  Mansfield,  23d.      Wyoming  :  Lookout  Station,  25th. 

Droughts. — The  droughts  reported  from  New  England  undoubtedly 
result  from  the  great  deficiency  in  rain-fall  of  nearly  6.00  inches,  from 
March  1st  to  June  30th  of  this  year.  The  rainfall  from  July  1st  to 
October  1st  has  been  slightly  above  the  normal  in  that  section  of  the 
country.  Bangor,  Me.,  to  9th;  great  suffering  in  farming  districts; 
streams  drying  up;  stock  driven  long  distances  for  water;  many  mills 
stopped.  Charlotte,  Vt.,  severe  to  the  13th.  Windsor,  Vt.,  severe 
at  beginning  of  month  up  to  9th.  Woodstock,  Vt.,  28th,  drought  of 
July  and  August  still  prevails;  many  wells  and  streams  dry;  farmers  com- 
pelled in  early  part  of  month  to  haul  water  for  stock.  Westborough, 
Mass.,  month  warm  and  dry.  Auburn,  N.  H.,  drought  severe  in  early 
part  of  month.  Fort  Madison,  Iowa,  30th,  water  scarce;  some  wells 
dry.     Sandy  Springs,  Md.,  30th,  slight  drought. 

RELATIVE   HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  New  England,  from  71  to  81;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  66  to  87; 
South  Atlantic  States,  69  to  88;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  71  to  80;  Western 
Gulf  States,  70  to  81;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  62  to  77;  Lower 
Lake  region,  65  to  73;  Upper  Lake  region,  65  to  75;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  62  to  71;  Missouri  Valley,  60  to  67;  Red  River  of  the  North 
Valley,  70  to  76;  Texas,  67  to  81;  Middle  Plateau,  19  to  39;  Califor- 
nia, 37  to  79;  Oregon,  64  to  78.  High  stations  report  the  following  per- 
centages not  corrected  for  altitude:  Mount  Washington,  86.6;  Denver, 
43.9;  Virginia  City,  31.0;    Cheyenne,  38.6. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  directions  of  the  wind  during  September,  1880,  are 
shown  by  arrows,  flying  with  the  wind,  on  Chart.  The  prevailing  direc- 
tion in  New  England,  the  Lake  region,  the  Ohio  and  Upper  Missis- 
sippi Valleys  was  southeasterly;  in  Florida,  Tennessee,  the  South  At- 
lantic, and "  Eastern  Gulf  States,  northeasterly;  in  the  Western  Gulf 
States,  including  all  of  Texas,  southeasterly;  the  Upper  Missouri  and 
Red  River  of  the  North  Valley,  northwesterly;  the  Lower  Missouri  Val- 
ley and  the  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  slope,  southerly.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  it  was  northwesterly,  except  south  at  Sacramento  and  southwest  at 
Los  Angeles.  In  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  the  winds  were  mostly  from 
the  northwest  to  southwest.  In  the  Plateau  districts  they  were  variable. 
On  Mount  Washington,  the  prevailing  direction  was  N.W.,  and  maxi- 
mum velocity  was  S.  76  miles  per  hour  on  the  28th.  Other  maximum 
velocities  of  50  miles  or  more  occurred  as  follows:  10th,  N.E.  60;  15th, 


THE    \vi.  vim. i;.  269 

N.K.  rO;  81st,  N.W.  70;  22d,  N.W.  60;  87th,  N.W.  57.  The  prevail- 
ing direction  on  Pike's  Peak  was  S.W.;  the  total  monthly  moyemenl  was 
9,824  miles  and  maximum  velocity  50  miles  W.,  4th.  A  maximum 
velocity  <>f  50  miles  N.E.  was  reported  From  Gape  Eemy  on  the  9th. 

Local  storm.  -On  Friday,  the  3d,  a  tornado  passed  through  the  south 
pari  of  Riley,  111.  It  came  from  the  southwest  and  moved  to  the  north- 
east in  a  path  aboul  200 feel  wide.  A.n  observer  says:  It  turned  ;i  tree, 
2  feet  in  diameter,  up  by  the  routs,  and  twisted  oil'  two  others  of  I  feet 
diameter,  about  12  feel  from  the  ground  and  carried  the  sundered  parts 
eight  or  ten  rods,  and  scattered  them  in  pieces  over  a  large  surface.  It 
broke  ofl  a  sound  hard  maple  of  thirty  years'  growth,  over  a  foot  in 
diameter,  10  feet  from  the  ground,  and  took  off  several  feet  of  the  tops 
of  stacks  of  oats  and  scattered  the  bundles.  It  all  occurred  within  five 
minutes,  and  in  the  mean  time  water  came  down  in  torrents  with  a 
whirling  motion.  There  was  considerable  damage  done  in  Harmony  and 
elsewhere  south  of  Riley  by  the  same  storm,  but  no  houses  blown  down. 

Wafer-spouts. — Key  West,  Florida,  16th,  3  p.m.,  about  six  miles  dis- 
tant. Buffalo,  29th,  4  water-spouts  reported  to  have  been  seen  on  Lake 
Erie,  4  miles  from  this  city,  moving  from  S.W.  to  N.E.  They  were  said 
to  be  cylindrical  rather  than  conical. 

Sand-storms. — Umatilla,  Oregon,  22d;  Burkes,  Ariz.,  9th  and  12th. 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Thunder-storms  have  occurred  with  the  greatest  frequency  as  follows 
Illinois :  3d,  18th,  and  19th.  Indiana :  3d,  5th,  6th,  loth,  18th,  25th. 
Iowa:  3d,  6th,  19th,  25th.  Kansas:  3d,  18th,  25th.  Michigan:  1st, 
19th.  Nebraska:  6th,  18th,  25th.  Missouri:  19th.  New  York:  4th. 
Ohio:  4th,  28th.  Virginia:  5th  and  6th.  Tennessee:  4th,  5th.  Texas: 
3d,  4th,  6th,  7th,  12th,  22d  to  26th.  In  other  States  they  have  occurred 
with  comparative  infrequency.  At  Santa  Barbara,  Oal.,  a  thunder- 
storm occurred  the  7th. 

Atmosplieric  electricity  interfering  with  telegraph  lines. — New  Mex- 
ico :  Silver  City,  on  the  9th,  10th,  21st;  Santa  Fe,  6th,  26th;  Socorro, 
12th,  16th,  20th,  26th,  28th,  29th;  La  Mesilla,  10th,  20th. 

Auroras  were  nightly  observed,  from  the  27th  to  the 30th,  inclusive, 
over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  from  Maine  westward  to  Dakota,  and  as 
far  south  as  latitude  40°.  They  were  visible  as  far  west  as  Fort  Buford 
on  the  27th,  28th,  29th,  and  at  Bismarck  on  the  30th.  To  the  eastward 
they  were  observed  as  far  as  Grafton,  N.  H.,  on  27th;  Bangor,  29th;  and 
Gardiner,  Me.,  28th  to  30th. 


THE    AYEATHEE. 


^- 


Till;   WEATHER.  2  .  1 


4.    MONTHLY   WEATHER  REVIEW,    OCTOBER,  1880. 
BABOMETBIO   PRESSURE. 

The  genera]  distribution  of  barometric  pressure  as  exhibited  on  the 
Chart  differs  slightly  from  the  mean  pressure  as  determined  from  the 
observations  for  many  years.  The  greatest  variation  from  the  mean 
occurs  on  the  North  Paciiic  coast,  where  the  pressure  is  seven  hundredths 
above  the  normal  at  Portland.  The  pressure  has  increased  from  three 
to  six  hundredths  in  all  districts  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  area  of 
mean  high  barometer  which  covered  the  Southern  States  in  September 
has  increased  and  moved  north  over  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  and  New 
England. 

Ilnrometric  ranges. — The  barometric  range  for  the  several  stations 
increases  with  the  latitude  and  is  unusually  great  in  the  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley  and  Upper  Lake  region,  located  near  the  track  of  the  centre  of 
the  storm  which  passed  over  these  regions  on  the  16th  and  17th.  The 
range  increases  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  0.30  at  Key  "West  to  1.22  at 
Portland,  Me.,  and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  0.68  at  New  Orleans 
to  1.68  at  La  Crosse,  this  being  the  greatest  range  reported.  In  the 
Lake  region,  the  range  varies  from  0.89  at  Eochester  to  1.51  at  Duluth. 
On  the  Pacific  coast  the  range  increases  with  the  latitude,  but  is  much 
less  than  at  corresponding  latitudes  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Nine  areas  of  high  barometer  have  ap- 
peared within  the  limits  of  the  Signal  Service  stations  during  the  month 
of  October,  four  of  which — Nos.  II.,  V.,  VII.,  and  IX. — were  traced 
from  the  North  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  No  VI.  apparently  de- 
veloped in  the  Southwest,  and  followed  the  general  direction  of  the 
storm  of  the  16th  and  17th,  being  preceded  by  the  most  severe  norther 
of  the  month  on  the  Texas  coast. 

Areas  of  low  barometer. — On  the  Chart  will  be  found  the  tracks  of 
centres  of  the  areas  of  low  pressure,  which  have  been  traced  from  the 
tri-daily  weather  maps  of  the  month.  The  mean  latitude  of  these  tracks 
is  several  degrees  to  the  north  of  the  mean  latitude  of  low  areas  for  cor- 
responding month  of  previous  years.  Nos.  IV.,  VIII.,  and  XI.  were 
tropical  storms,  which  developed  south  of  latitude  25°,  and  No.  VI.,  the 
most  marked  depression  of  the  month,  apparently  developed  in  the 
Southwest,  probably  in  Northern  Texas.  No.  XII.  is  the  only  depres- 
sion that  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  this  disappeared  before 
reaching  the  Lake  region. 


.272  THE  WEATHER. 


TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  during  October,  1880,  is  shown  by 
the  isothermal  lines  on  the  Chart.  In  the  Southern  .States  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Hirer,  and  in  the  Middle  States,  the  temperature  has  been  near 
the  normal  of  many  years.  In  all  the  other  districts  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  it  has  averaged  from  one  to  five  degrees  below  the  normal, 
the  greatest  departures  being  in  Western  Texas,  and  thence  northward 
over  Kansas  and  Colorado.  On  the  Pacific  slope,  the  temperature  cor- 
responds with  the  normal,  except  at  San  Diego,  where  it  is  one  degree 
below,  and  in  the  southern  Plateau  district,  where  it  has  averaged  over 
two  degrees  below.  The  temperature  is  slightly  above  the  normal  in  the 
lower  Saint  Lawrence  Valley  and  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence. 


PRECIPITATION. 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall  for  October,  1880,  is  shown  on 
the  Chart,  as  accurately  as  possible,  from  about  five  hundred  reports. 
East  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver,  except  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley, 
Upper  Lake  region,  and  Middle  Atlantic  States,  where  there  were  slight 
deficiencies,  there  were  excesses  of  rain-fall,  ranging  from  3.36  inches  in 
the  Florida  peninsula  and  2.10  inches  in  the  South  Atlantic  States  to 
0.17  in  Xew  England.  West  of  the  Mississippi,  except  in  Minnesota 
and  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  where  slight  excesses  occurred,  the  rain- 
fall was  below  the  average,  the  greatest  deficiency,  1.47  inch,  occurring 
in  the  Xorth  Pacific  coast  region. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:  Xew  England,  7  to  16;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  5  to 
13;  South  Atlantic  States,  7  to  17;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  10  to  14; 
Western  Gulf  States,  4  to  10;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  10  to  16; 
Lower  Lake  region,  14  to  22;  Upper  Lake  region,  7  to  20;  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  5  to  10;  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  5  to  7;  Red  River  of  the 
Xorth  Valley,  9  to  11;  Rio  Grande  Valley,  3  to  8:  Texas.  3  to  7;  Rocky 
Mountains,  5  to  17;  Western  Plateau,  0  to  5;  California,  0  to  3;  Oregon, 
3  to  10;  Washington  Territory,  7  to  9. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varies  in  Xew  England  from  5  to  14; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  6  to  10;  South  Atlantic  States,  8  to  16;  Eastern 
Gulf  States,  6  to  16;  Western  Gulf  States,  3  to  10;  Ohio  Valley  and 
Tennessee,  8  to  13;  Lower  Lake  region,  10  to  13;  Upper  Lake  region,  8 
to  16;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  7  to  12;  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  5  to  11; 
Red  River  of  the  Xorth  Valley,  12  to  14;  Rio  Grande  Valley,  4  to  7; 
Texas,  1  to  9;  Rocky  Mountains,  4  to  9;  Western  plateau,  2  to  5;  Cali- 
fornia, 1  to  3. 

Hail. — New  York:    Madison  Barracks,  6th;    Buffalo;    17th,  18th. 


THE    WKATin  .1:. 

I'mnsiilrania :  Catawissa,  Fallsington,  Philadelphia,  and  W'c-t  Chester, 

28th;  Green  Castle,  26th.     New  Jersey :  Freehold  and  Prii ton,  28th. 

Illinois:  Chicago,  Let,  2d,  25th;  Morrison  and  Sterling,  2d.  Iowa: 
Dubuque,  14th,  L6th;  Clinton,  3d;  Cresco,  15th;  Mount  Vernon,  2d. 
Des  Moines,  15th,  severesi  storm  experienced  since  opening  Btation; 
great  damage  to  windows;  stones  varied  in  size  from  hickory  nuts  to 
walnuts;  width  of  track,  one-quarter  mile;  direction  from  southwest  to 
northeast.  Kansas :  Eolton,  2d.  Michigan:  Lansing,  2d,  25th;  Mar- 
quette, 16th.  Minnesota:  Saint  Vincent,  10th;  New  Ulm,  15th;  Du- 
1  ii tli.  28th.  Wisconsin:  Milwaukee,  25th.  Dakota:  Fort  Bennett, 
15th,  16th.  Texas :  San  Antonio,  27th;  Pilot  Point,  15th.  New  Mex- 
ico: Santa  Fe,  12th.  Oregon:  Albany,  10th.  Washington  Territory: 
Pomeroy,  14th. 

Snow. — New  Hampshire:  19th,  24th,  26th;  on  summit  of  Mount 
Washington,  1st,  2d,  5th,  6th,  7th,  8th,  12th,  13th,  18th  to  23d,  25th  to 
31st.  Vermont:  19th,  20th,  23d,  25th,  28th.  Massachusetts:  19th, 
20th,  24th.  New  York:  17th,  18th,  19th,  20th,  23d,  24th,  27th,  28th. 
New  Jersey:  19th,  28th.  Pennsylvania:  19th,  24th,  28th.  Mary- 
inn, I:  19th,  22d,  and  23d  in  mountains.  West  Virginia:  19th, 
23d.  Kentucky:  19th.  Ohio:  17th,  19th,  20th,  23d,  24th.  Michi- 
gan: 16th  to  24th,  26th,  27th.  Indiana:  15th,  17th  to  19th.  Illinois: 
16th,  17th,  19th  to  23d.  Missouri:  16th.  Wisconsin:  16th,  17th  to 
19th,  23d.  Iowa:  15th  to  19th,  23d.  Kansas :  15th,  16th.  Nebraska: 
14th  to  18th,  21st.  Minnesota :  15th  to  21st,  23d,  30th.  Dakota : 
9th,  15th  to  18th,  26th.  Colorado :  9th  to  13th,  15th,  26th,  30th.  On 
summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  9th,  11th,  12th,  13th,  18th  to  24th,  31st.  New 
Mexico:  10th,  11th.  Nevada:  8th,  10th,  11th,  12th.  Utah:  8th,  9th, 
10th,  14th.  Wyoming:  9th,  10th,  14th  to  18th,  29th.  Idaho:  14th. 
Montana :  8th,  9th,   14th,  15th,  28th. 

Droughts. — Fort  Madison,  Iowa,  30th,  water  very  scarce;  pastures 
drying  up.  Yates  Center,  Kans.,  31st,  streams  and  ponds  lower  than 
for  past  six  3',ears.  Emmittsburg,  Md.,  30th,  month  very  dry.  Sandy 
Springs,  Md.,  31st,  great  scarcity  of  water;  streams  unusually  low. 
Contoocookville,  N.  H.,  1st  to  30th,  quite  severe.  Palermo,  N.  Y.,18th, 
very  dry;  wells  and  streams  low.  Greencastle,  Pa.,  last  half  of  month 
streams  very  low;  wells  and  springs  nearly  dry;  boats  on  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Canal  stopped  running  for  want  of  water.  Woodstock,  Yt.. 
throughout  month  springs  and  wells  remarkably  low.  "Wvtheville,  Ya.. 
29th,  drought  has  been  very  severe  since  the  1st;  cisterns  and  wells  gen- 
erally exhausted  and  streams  very  low. 

Snow  from  a  cloudless  sky. — Springfield,  111.,  18th. 
Snoiv  on  ground  at  end  of  month. — Virginia    City,    Mont.,    1.50 
inches;    Pike's   Peak,    2    feet  2   inches;    Breckenridge,    Minn.,    trace; 
Mount  Washington,  4.00  inches. 
18 


274: 


THE    WEATHER. 


RELATIVE    HUMIDITY. 


The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  New  England,  66  to  SO.  Middle  Atlantic  States,  61  to  86 
South  Atlantic  States,  62  to  80.  Eastern  Gulf  States,  68  to  77.  West- 
ern Gulf  States,  70  to  76.  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  63  to  79.  Lower 
Lake  region,  67  to  70.  Upper  Lake  region,  66  to  76.  Upper  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  58  to  65.  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  62  to  64.  Red  River  of 
the  North  Valley,  70  to  77.  Rio  Grande  Valley,  63  to  71.  Texas,  61 
to  71.  Western  Plateau,  30  to  45.  California,  37  to  71.  Oregon,  54 
to  82.  High  stations  report  the  following  percentages  not  corrected 
for  altitude:  Mount  "Washington,  80.7;  Pike's  Peak,  67.3;  Denver, 
55.9;  Cheyenne,  45.0;  Virginia  City,  48.7;  Santa  Fe,  48.0. 


WINDS. 

The  arrows  on  the  Chart  indicate  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind 
at  the  several  stations  during  the  month  of  October.  The  prevailing  direc- 
tion was  north  to  east  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  area  of  mean  high  barometer  for  the  month,  and 
south  to  west  in  the  Lake  region,  Ohio  Valley,  northwest  and  interior 
of  Texas,  the  Middle  States,  and  Xew  England.  Xortherly  winds  pre- 
vailed on  the  Pacific  coast  as  far  south  as  Sacramento,  and  southeast  to 
southwest  winds  in  the  southern  portion  of  California.  At  stations  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region  the  prevailing  direction  was  generally  from 
the  higher  to  lower  altitudes.  Pike's  Peak,  prevailing  direction,  north- 
west; highest  velocity,  72  miles,  west  on  13th.  Mount  Washington, 
prevailing  direction,  northwest;  highest  velocity,  84  miles,  northwest  on 
the  24th  and  31st. 

Local  Storms. — Under  this  head  no  storms  of  decided  severity  were 
reported  during  the  month  except  in  connection  with  the  passage  of  low 
area  Xo.  VI.  during  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th,  which  are  herewith  ap- 
pended from  the  reports  of  various  stations  and  other  sources.  Morri- 
son, 111.,  16th,  violent  storm,  hundreds  of  trees  prostrated,  and  consid- 
erable damage  to  fences  and  out-buildings.  Riley,  111.,  16th,  great 
damage  to  trees,  fences,  corn-fields,  and  a  "  wholesale  destruction 
of  windmills;"  heaviest  storm  ever  experienced  here;  estimated  ve- 
locity of  wind,  70  miles  per  hour.  Rockford,  111.,  16th,  severe 
gale  from  the  southwest,  causing  considerable  damage.  Elmira,  111., 
16th,  violent  southwest  gale  nearly  all  day.  Springfield,  111.,  16th,  con- 
siderable damage  to  trees,  fences,  and  out-buildings.  Chicago,  16th,  vio- 
lent southwest  gale  with  sleet  from  5.15  to  9.30  p.m.,  buildings  blown 
down,  and  much  damage  to  shipping;  17th,  wind  continued  high  all  day. 
Independence,  Iowa,  16th,  snow  accompanied  by  a  violent  westerly  gale 


THE    WEATIIl  i:.  275 

Erom  L  to  11  p.m.  Qattenberg,  Iowa,  15th,  severe  thunder-storm,  creeks 
Ln  vicinity  rose  11  feet  above  Low-water  mark;  16th,  hurricane  from 
west,  accompanied  by  sleet.      Logan,    Iowa,    16th,  violent   westerly  gale, 

worst  storm  for  twenty  years.  .Mount  Vernon,  Iowa,  violent  westerly 
gale  all  day.  Nora  Springs,  Iowa,  lGth,  lowetst  barometer  ever  recorded, 
Btorm  of  great  severity,  all  railroad  communication  westward  suspended. 
Muscatine,  Iowa,  lGth,  very  heavy  west  gale.    Cresco,  Iowa,  16th,  hi 

iterly  storm,  lowest  barometer  for  the  year.  Vail,  Iowa,  l<;th,  storm 
of  unusual  severity;  snow-drifts,  from  3  to  5  feet  deep.  Mitchellville,  Iowa 
15th,  about  4  P.M.  a  tornado  was  noticed  in  the  west  coming  rapidly  in 
direction  of  town,  accompanied  by  a  deep,  heavy,  rumbling  sound.  The 
cloud,  funnel-shaped  and  twisting  with  great  rapidity,  was  accom- 
panied by  a  heavy  westerly  gale,  and  sudden  darknes3  overshadowed 
everything  as  it  approached  the  western  edge  of  the  village,  where  it 
lifted  from  the  earth  and  passed  harmlessly  to  the  northeast,  when  it 
again  seemed  to  descend.  Dubuque,  Iowa,  lGth,  violent  southwest  wind, 
considerable  damage  to  trees,  fences,  and  out-buildings.  Keokuk,  Iowa, 
loth,  southwest  48  miles,  considerable  damage  to  property;  16th,  west,  40 
miles.  Davenport,  Iowa,  lGth,  great  damage  to  fences,  trees,  and  build- 
ings, and  navigation  suspended.  Topeka,  Kans.,  loth,  southwest,  54 
miles,  much  damage  to  property.  Dodge  City,  Kans.,  14th  and  15th, 
north,  56  miles.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  16th,  17th,  violent  southwest 
gale.  Escanaba,  16th,  much  damage  to  shipping  and  other  property. 
Port  Huron,  16th,  severe  wind-storm,  lasting  thirty-six  hours,  much 
damage  to  shipping  and  other  property.  Port  Huron,  16th,  severe  wind- 
storm lasting  thirty-six  hours,  much  damage  to  shipping.  Grand  Haven, 
16th,  southwest  48  miles,  worst  day  ever  seen  at  this  station.  Detroit, 
17th,  heavy  southwest  wind  nearly  all  day.  Genoa,  Nebr.,  15th,  violent 
wind-storm  from  the  north,  severest  for  many  years.  De  Soto,  Xeb., 
16th,  heavy  northwest  gale.  North  Platte,  16th,  violent  gale  from 
northwest,  54  miles  per  hour:  Wooster,  Ohio,  17th,  violent  southwest 
wind  nearly  all  day.  Flemington,  TV.  Va.,  16th  to  18th,  very  violent 
westerly  winds.  Ashland,  Wis.,  17th,  heavy  northeast  gale,  much  dam- 
age to  docks,  warehouses,  and  shipping.  Bloomfield,  Wis.,  16th,  violent 
southwest  gale,  much  damage  to  fences  and  buildings.  Milwaukee,  16th, 
southwest  60  miles,  much  damage  to  buildings,  and  telegraphic  commu- 
nication interrupted.  Madison,  Wis.,  16th,  west,  44  miles,  much  dam- 
age to  property.  Breckenridge,  northwest,  56  miles,  1.30  P.M.  Duluth, 
16th,  northeast  and  northwest  30  miles,  very  heavy  sea  on  lake  and 
much  damage  to  shipping  and  wharves.  Saint  Vincent,  Minn.,  16th, 
violent  storm  from  the  north,  highest  velocity  40  miles  per  hour.  St. 
Paul,  violent  gale  from  north-northwest,  considerable  damage  in  country 
and  city,  all  telegraphic  communication  interrupted.  Yankton,  Dak., 
16th,  70  miles,  northeast  at  1  a.m.;  roads  blocked  with  snow  and  com- 
munication of  all  kind  suspended.     Snow-drifts  east  of  station  reported 


2TG  THE   WEATHER. 

to  be  from  10  to  15  feet  high.  Reports  from  different  points  estimate  loss 
of  cattle  and  crops  in  Yankton  County,  at  $5,000.  Fort  Bennett,  Dak., 
lGth,  north,  40  miles.  Memphis,  Tenn.,  15th,  32  miles  west,  much  damage 
to  buildings  in  city.  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  15th,  west  32  miles,  consider- 
able damage  to  bridges,  fences,  and  buildings. 

Sand-storms. — Umatilla,  Oreg.,  13th;  Winnemucca,  Xev.,  7th,  8th, 
14th,  28th;  Fort  Yuma,  Cal.,  8th,  15th;  Fort  Garland,  Colo.,  22d. 


ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Thunder-storms. — Comparatively  few  have  been  reported  during 
the  month,  and  mostly  from  the  northern  sections  of  the  country.  The 
most  extensive,  as  well  as  severe,  was  that  of  the  15th  and  16th.  Dis- 
tributed among  the  several  States,  they  were  reported  on  the  following 
dates:  Maine:  23d.  Massachusetts:  12th,  23d,  25th,  30th,  and  31st. 
New  York :  3d,  12th,  and  16th.  Virginia :  15th,  22d,  30th.  North 
Carolina:  22d.  Florida:  3d,  5th,  7th,  and 28th.  Tennessee:  3d,  14th, 
15th,  16th,  and  26th.  Kentucky:  14th  and  15th.  Ohio:  1st,  2d,  14th, 
15th,  17th,  and  21st.  Indiana:  1st  and  15th.  Illinois:  1st,  2d,  3d, 
14th,  15th,  21st,  24th,  and 25th.  Michigan:  1st,  3d,  4th,  15th,  and 25th. 
Wisconsin :  10th  and  16th.  loiva :  1st,  2d,  3d,  10th,  11th,  13th,  15th, 
and  24th.  Missouri:  15th  and  25th.  Mississippi:  27th.  Louisiana: 
3d,  27th,  and  28th.  Texas:  2d,  3d,  13th,  15th,  16th,  21st,  26th,  and 
27th.  Indian  Territory:  13th,  15th,  and  25th.  Kansas:  2d  and  20th. 
Nebraska :  2d,  3d,  and  13th.     Colorado  :  26th.     New  Mexico  :  24th. 

Auroras. — The  most  extensive  occurred  on  the  evenings  of  the  7th, 
28th,  and  30th,  and  the  early  morning  of  the  31st,  and  were  reported  by 
various  observers,  both  Signal  Service  and  voluntary,  from  stations 
reaching  eastward  from  Dakota  to  Maine,  and  southward  to  the  37th 
parallel. 


AQUEOUS    VAPOR    IX   RELATION"   TO    PERPETUAL    SNOW. 
BY  JAMES  CROLL,    LL.D.,   F.R.S. 

Some  twelve  years  ago  I  gave  (Phil.  Mag.,  March,  1867,  "Climate 
and  Time,"  p.  548)  what  appears  to  be  the  true  explanation  of  that  ap- 
parently paradoxical  fact  observed  by  Mr.  Glaishier,  that  the  difference 
of  reading  between  a  thermometer  exposed  to  direct  sunshine  and  one 
shaded  diminishes  instead  of  increases  as  we  ascend  in  the  atmosphere. 
This  led  me  to  an  important  conclusion  in  regard  to  the  influence  of 
aqueous  vapor  on  the  melting  of  snow,  but  recent  objections  to  some  of 
my  views  convince  me  that  I  have  not  given  to  that  conclusion  the  prom- 
inence it  deserves.  I  shall  now  state  in  a  few  words  the  conclusion  to 
which  I  refer. 


I  11 1,    v,  i.A  i  ii  I  R. 

The  reason  why  snow  at  great  elevations  does  not  melt,  but  remains 
permanent,  is  owing  to  the  facl  thai  the  heal  received  from  the  ran  is 
thrown  off  into  stellar  space  so  rapidly  by  radial  ion  and  refled  ion  that  tho 
sun  fails  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  mowto  the  melting  point;  the 
snow  evaporates  bul  doesnotmelt.  The  summits  of  the  Himalayas,  for 
example,  must  receive  more  than  ten  times  the  amounl  of  heal  01  cessary 
to  melt  all  the  mow  that  falls  on  them,  notwithstanding  which  the  snow 
is  not  melted.  And  in  spite  of  the  strength  of  the  sun  and  the  dry] 
of  the  air  at  these  altitudes,  evaporation  is  insufficient  to  remove  the 
snow.  At  low  elevations,  where  the  snow-fall  is  probably  great'!-,  and  the 
amount  of  heat  received  even  less  than  at  the  summits,  tho  snow  melts 
and  disappears.  This  I  believe  we  must  attribute  to  the  influence  of 
aqueous  vapor.  At  high  elevations  the  air  is  dry  and  allows  the  heat 
radiated  from  the  snow  to  pass  into  space,  but  at  low  elevations  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  heat  radiated  from  the  snow  is  absorbed  by  the 
aqueous  vapor  which  it  encounters  in  passing  through  the  atmosphere. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  heat  thus  radiated,  being  of  the  same  qual- 
ity as  that  which  the  snow  itself  radiates,  is  on  this  account  absorbed  by 
the  snow.  Little  or  none  of  it  is  reflected  like  that  received  from  the 
sun.  The  consequence  is  that  the  heat  thus  absorbed  accumulates  in  the 
snow  till  melting  takes  place.  Were  the  amount  of  aqueous  vapor 
possessed  by  the  atmosphere  sufficiently  diminished,  perpetual  snow 
would  cover  our  globe  down  to  the  sea-shore.  It  is  true  that  the  air  is 
warmer  at  the  lower  level  than  at  the  higher  level,  and  by  contact  with 
the  snow  must  tend  to  melt  it  more  at  the  former  than  at  the  latter  posi- 
tion. But  we  must  remember  that  the  air  is  warmer,  mainly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  influence  of  aqueous  vapor,  and  that  were  the  quantity 
of  vapor  reduced  to  the  amount  in  question,  the  difference  of  tempera- 
ture at  the  two  positions  would  not  be  great. 

But  it  may  be  urged,  as  a  further  objection  to  the  foregoing  conclu- 
sion, that  as  a  matter  of  fact  on  great  mountain-chains,  the  line  reaches 
to  a  lower  level  on  the  side  where  the  air  is  moist,  than  on  the  opposite 
side  where  it  is  dry  and  arid.  As,  for  example,  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  Himalayas  and  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes,  where  the  snow-line 
descends  some  2,000  or  3,000  feet  below  that  of  the  opposite,  or  dry  side. 
But  this  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  on  the  moist  side  that  by  far  the 
greatest  amount  of  snow  is  precipitated.  The  moist  winds  of  the  S.  W, 
monsoon  deposit  their  snow  almost  wholly  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Wimalayas,  and  the  S.E.  trades  the  snow  on  the  east  side  of  the  Andes. 
Here  the  conditions  in  every  respect  the  same  on  both  sides  of  the 
mountain  ranges,  with  the  exception  only  that  the  air  on  one  was  per- 
fectly dry,  allowing  radiations  from  the  snow  to  pass  without  interrup- 
tion into  stellar  space,  while  on  the  other  side  the  air  was  moist  ami  full 
of  aqueous  vapor,  the  snowline  would  descend  to  a  lower  level  on  the  dry 
than  on  the  moist  side. — A  mer.  J'l  of  Science,  No.  116,  vol.  xx.,  Aug.  1880. 


THE    WEATHER. 


tiii;   w  i..\  i  m.i:  27'.' 


5.  MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,   NOVEMBER,   1880. 
BAROMETIC    PRESSURE. 

Upon  the  Chart  is  shown,  by  the  isobaric  lines,  the  distribution  of 
atmospheric  pressure  over  the  United  States  for  November,  1880.  On 
the  Pacific  slope  an  area  of  unusually  high  pressure  prevailed  over  Ore- 
gon and  Washington  Territory,  the  mean  being  above  30.30  at  all  Ore- 
gon stations.  An  area  of  very  high  pressure  covered  the  Middle  States 
and  the  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  the  mean  ranging  in  these  districts 
from  30.22  to  30.29.  Except  at  the  Eocky  Mountain  stations,  in  the 
Plateau  districts,  the  South  Atlantic  and  Eastern  Gulf  States,  the  mean 
pressures  have  been  decidedly  greater  than  have  ever  before  been  re- 
corded by  this  service  in  November. 

Departures  from  normal  values  for  the  month. — By  comparison  with 
the  average  for  seven  years,  it  is  found  that  the  barometric  pressure  for 
November,  1880,  except  in  the  Plateau  and  Rocky  Mountain  districts 
(where  the  departures  from  the  normal  have  been  slight  and  unimpor- 
tant), has  been  very  decidedly  above  the  average.  The  excess  in  New 
England,  the  Middle  States,  the  Lower  Lake  region,  and  the  Ohio  Val- 
ley, has  ranged  from  0.16  inch  to  0.20;  elsewhere,  except  along  the  im- 
mediate Gulf  coast,  it  varied  from  0.10  to  0.19.  On  the  Pacific  coast, 
the  excess  was  0.08  at  San  Diego,  0.12  at  San  Francisco,  and  0.20  at 
Portland. 

The  local  barometric  ranges,  from  readings  reduced  to  sea-level. 
have,  during  November,  1880,  been  greater  than  usual.  These  ranges, 
eastward  of  the  102d  meridian,  as  a  rule,  increase  from  the  coast  toward 
the  interior,  so  that  lines  of  equal  ranges  are  generally  parallel  to  the  sea- 
coast.  In  the  Gulf  States  the  lines  deviate  slightly  from  this  rule,  and 
trend  from  the  northeast  to  the  southwest — the  fluctuations  in  Texas 
being  decidedly  greater  than  in  Florida.  The  local  ranges  for  the  month 
decrease  gradually  along  the  Gulf  coast  from  0.92  at  Indianola  to  0.36 
at  Punta  Rassa  and  Key  West.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast  they  increase 
gradually  from  0.51  at  Jacksonville  to  1.23  at  Portland,  Me.  The 
greatest  fluctuations  occurred  over  the  Lake  region  and  the  Ohio  Val- 
ley; greatest  ranges,  1.44  inches  at  Marquette,  1.45  at  Columbus,  1.48 
at  Madison  and  Rochester,  and  1.50  at  Buffalo.  In  the  elevated  pla- 
teaus of  the  country  the  range  increases  quite  regularly  with  the  lati- 
tude, while  on  the  Pacific  slope  the  lines  of  equal  ranges  trend  from 
northwest  to  southeast,  indicating  that  the  range  increases  with  latitude 


280  THE   WEATHEK. 

and  elevation.     The  greatest  ranges  on  that  coast  were  1.19  at  Olympia- 
and  1.42  at  Umatilla. 

General  barometric  range. — The  extreme  range  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  reduced  to  sea-level,  was  1.75  inch,  from  30.86  at  Cincinnati 
on  the  morning  of  the  22d  to  29.11  at  Father  Point  on  the  afternoon  of 
the  7th. 

Areas  of  high  temperature. — Nine  such  areas  have  prevailed  during 
November,  1880;  two  of  these  areas  were  encroachments  of  the  area  of 
high  pressure  from  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  No.  VI.  appears  to  have 
been  formed  by  an  encroachment  of  high  pressure  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  together  with  an  outflow  from  Saskatchewan.  No.  III.  appeared 
first  in  Texas,  although  it  may  have  moved  eastward  from  the  Plateau 
districts.  Nos.  III.,  VII.,  and  VIII.  were  especially  noted  for  the  un- 
usually high  pressures  and  very  low  temperatures  for  the  season.  In 
consequence,  the  pressure  has  been  abnormally  high,  and  the  tempera- 
ture proportionally  low. 

No.  VII. — This  area,  the  most  important  of  the  month,  was  appar- 
ently an  outflow  of  dry,  cold  air  from  Saskatchewan  or  Manitoba.  Dur- 
ing the  20th  the  pressure  rose  rapidly  in  the  Missouri  Valley,  and  at 
midnight  was  central  in  Missouri;  Omaha  and  Leavenworth  barometers 
0.39  above  the  normal.  Moving  slowly  eastward  the  pressure  was 
increased  by  an  additional  outflow  of  cold  air  from  Hudson's  Bay  Ter- 
ritory, so  that  while  the  centre  remained  nearly  stationary  in  the  Ohio 
Valley  during  the  22d  and  23d,  the  pressure  at  Cincinnati  rose  to  30.85 
or  0.67  above  the  normal,  the  highest  pressure  ever  noted  at  that  sta- 
tion. As  this  area  withdrew  eastward  from  the  Ohio  Valley  to  the  Mid- 
dle States  during  the  23d,  advancing  high  area  No.  VIII.  united  with  it. 
Its  subsequent  history  is  considered  as  that  of  No.  VIII.  Cautionary- 
signals  were  ordered  for  the  North  Carolina  coast,  and  naving  been  jus- 
tified were  continued  until  the  26th  in  connection  with  high  area  No. 
VIII.  The  passage  of  this  area  was  marked  by  minimum  temperatures 
for  the  Lake  region,  the  Atlantic  States,  the  Ohio,  Upper  Mississippi,. 
and  Lower  Missouri  Valleys.  Except  in  New  England,  these  tempera- 
tures were  remarkably  low  for  November.  They  occurred  from  seven  to 
eight  days  earlier  in  the  month  than  the  remarkably  low  temperatures  of 
1875.  The  most  notable  temperatiires  observed  at  Signal  Service  sta- 
tions were:  Washington,  12.5°;  Philadelphia,  10°;  Saint  Louis  and 
Louisville,  8°;  Pittsburgh,  4°;  Buffalo,  3°;  Chicago,  1°;  Erie,  Detroit, 
Sandusky,  Grand  Haven,  and  Des  Moines,  0°;  Champaign,  — 3°;  Alpena, 
— 4°;  Columbus,  Indianapolis,  Keokuk,  and  Milwaukee,  — 5°;  Port. 
Huron,  — 6';     Marquette,  — 9°. 

Areas  of  low  pressure. — Sixteen  areas  are  described  for  November, 
1880.  Eleven  of  these  areas  have  followed  tracks  sufficiently  well  de- 
fined to  permit  the  charting  of  them.  Of  these  areas,  Nos.  III.,  VI., 
and  XL  were  possibly  of  cyclonic  origin.     Four  originated  in  the  Rocky; 


THB  \\  i:\rii!  i:.  281 

Mountain  districts,  one  developed  in  Minnesota,  •  and  the  remaining 
areas  probably  formed  in  Saskatchewan  or  Hudson's  Bay  Territory.  No 
ana.  except  possibly  No.  V.,  originated  on  the  Paciflo  coast.  Nos. 
III.,  \\,  VII.,  and  X.  were  storms  of  marked  ami  unusual  violence  in  the 
Lake  region,  ami  caused  the  loss  of  many  lives  ami  destruction  of  many 
vessels.  The  severity  of  the  storms  in  the  early  part  of  the  month  on 
Lake  Ontario  maybe  inferred  from  the  statement  that  during  the  firsl 

twelve  days  of  the  month  the  crew  of  the  Oswego  life-saving  station  reb- 
elled forty-five  persons,  thirty-nine  of  whom  were  saved  from  wp 
No.  XI.  proved  to  be  an  unusually  severe  storm  along  the  New  England 
ooast,  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces,  and  Newfoundland.  The 
extreme  violence  of  these  storms  has  in  a  large  measure  been  occasioned 
by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  low  areas  have  been  followed  by  areas  of 
high  pressure. 

No.  III. — This  storm,  which  was  one  of  marked  and  unusual  vio- 
lence in  the  Lower  Lake  region,  was  possibly  of  cyclonic  origin.  At 
midnight  of  the  5th  a  sharp  barometric  fall  was  reported  from  the  cen- 
tral coast  of  the  Gulf  States;  New  Orleans  and  Mobile  barometers  0.22 
below  the  normal.  On  the  morning  of  the  6th  a  trough  of  decreased 
pressure  extended  from  Alabama  northward  to  Ohio;  Knoxville,  Nash- 
ville, and  Columbus  barometers  0.34  below  the  normal.  During  the  day 
the  pressure  rapidly  decreased,  being  that  afternoon  0.60  below  the  nor- 
mal at  Columbus,  and  at  midnight  0.86  below  at  Kingston.  Moving 
rapidly  northeastward  it  was  central  in  the  lower  Saint  Lawrence  Valley 
on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  and  later  in  the  day  passed  over  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence.  At  midnight  of  the  5th  signals  displayed  for  area  No. 
II.  were  continued  on  the  lower  lakes,  and  all  stations  were  warned  of 
this  advanced  storm.  This  storm,  in  connection  with  advancing  high 
area  No.  III.,  was  unusually  severe  in  the  Lower  Lake  region  and  New 
England.  The  storm  on  Lake  Erie  was  said  to  have  been  the  worst  for 
thirty  years.  Eain  or  snow,  with  northerly  backing  to  westerly  gales, 
prevailed,  with  wind  velocities  as  follows:  Sandusky,  "W.,  43;  Erie, 
N.W.,  44;  Toledo,  W.,  44.  At  Toledo  many  vessels  warned  remained 
in  port;  all  venturing  out  were  obliged  to  put  in  for  shelter,  and  one 
was  lost.  Two  schooners  and  three  barges  were  driven  ashore,  and 
others  were  severely  damaged.  On  Lake  Ontario  the  storm  was  even 
more  severe.  During  the  7th  the  wind  attained  velocities  of  W.  36  at 
Oswego,  W.  44  at  Rochester,  and  W.  60  at  Buffalo.  On  that  morning 
the  propeller  Zelanda  foundered;  crew,  sixteen  in  number,  all  lost.  One 
schooner  and  crew  of  seven  were  lost,  and  one  passenger  steamer 
and  one  schooner  missing,  probably  lost.  Four  other  steamers,  one 
barge,  and  one  scow  were  driven  ashore,  and  several  vessels  badly  dam- 
aged. Many  vessels  remaining  in  the  harbor  at  Buffalo  escaped  the 
storm;  all  others  leaving  port  were  driven  back  badly  damaged.  At 
Buffalo  the  storm  was  very  violent,  doing  considerable  damage  to  prop- 


232  THE    WEATIIER. 

erfcy ;  the  mean  hourly  velocity  of  the  wind  for  the  twelve  hours  preceding 
12  M.  of  the  7th  was  forty-three  miles.  Part  of  Main  street  was  sub- 
merged by  high  water.  At  Utica  the  storm  was  very  violent,  unroofing 
a  church  and  damaging  other  property.  A  violent  thunder-storm 
occurred  at  Poughkeepsie  at  2  p.m.  of  the  7th.  During  the  morning 
violent  gales  occurred  at  Toronto  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Province  of 
Ontario.  Much  damage  was  done  to  houses  and  other  buildings  at  Can- 
andaigua,  Palmyra,  and  other  portions  of  Western  New  York.  During 
the  6th  cautionary  signals  were  displayed  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from 
North  Carolina  to  Maine,  and  were  changed  later  from  cautionary  signals 
to  off-shore  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  Portland;  they  were  lowered  at  the  af- 
ternoon and  midnight  reports  of  the  7th;  these  signals  were  fully  justified 
by  southeasterly  veering  to  northwesterly  gales,  with  the  following  maxi- 
mum velocities:  Portland,  S.E.,31,  andN.W.,  34;  Boston,  W.  32;  East- 
port,  S.,  36;  New  Shoreham,  S.W.,  36;  Cape  Hatteras,  N.W.,  36; 
Kittyhawk,  S.W.,  44;  Wood's  Holl,  N.W.,  42,  and  S.W.,  45;  Cape 
May,  W.,  62.  Very  severe  weather  was  reported  from  Long  Island 
Sound  and  off  the  New  England  coast.  At  Thatcher's  Island  the  Sig- 
nal Office  building  was  unroofed  by  the  gale.  Strong  westerly  gales 
prevailed  in  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces  during  the  8th;  Father 
Point,  wind  in  the  afternoon  and  midnight  W.  55  miles.  During  the 
7th  and  8th,  strong  westerly  gales  and  high  seas  were  reported  by  incom- 
ing European  steamers. 

No.  V. — During  the  6th  the  pressure  fell  rapidly  on  the  North 
Pacific  coast,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  7th  the  barometer  at  Olympia 
was  0.17  below  the  normal.  The  centre,  considerably  to  the  nortbward 
of  the  Signal  Service  stations,  by  a  southeasterly  course,  reached  North- 
ern Dakota  on  the  morning  of  the  8th;  Bismarck  barometer  0.52  below 
the  normal.  At  that  time  an  extensive  trough  of  low  pressure  covered 
the  country  from  the  Plateau  districts  eastward  to  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. During  the  day,  the  pressure  rose  in  the  Missouri  Valley,  and  the 
centre  of  this  area  moved  due  south  to  Northern  Texas,  where  it  was 
central  the  afternoon  of  the  9th.  Changing  its  course  to  north- 
northeast,  it  was  central,  with  decreasing  pressure,  the  morning  of  the 
10th  in  Iowa  (Keokuk  barometer  0.63  below  the  normal),  and  on  the 
morning  of  the  11th  in  Northern  Michigan;  Marquette  barometer  0.66 
below  normal.  Changing  its  course  to  the  eastward  through  Canada, 
considerably  to  the  north  of  the  Signal  Service  stations,  it  reached  the 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  the  afternoon  of  the  12th.  Cautionary  sig- 
nals were  ordered  for  the  Texas  coast  during  the  8th,  and  were  changed, 
as  the  area  moved  eastward,  to  off-shore.  Maximum  velocities  of  S.W. 
40  and  N.W.  40,  were  reported  from  Indianola.  Cautionary  signals 
were  displayed  at  Pensacola  on  the  9th,  justified  by  a  wind  of  S.W.  25 
miles.  Considerable  damage  was  done  to  vessels  in  Pensacola  Harbor. 
As  this  area  moved  northeastward  from  Texas  at  midnight  of  the  9th, 


THE    WEATHER.  l's:; 

oautionary  signals  were  displayed  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  were  ordered 
the  following  morning  for  the  rest  of  the  Lake  region  andalong  tin- 
Atlantic  coast  from  Chincoteague  to  Wood's  Holl.  These  signals  were 
changed  to  off-shore  on  the  New  Jersey  coast  the  morning  of  the  11th. 
and  along  the  New  England  coast  the  morning  of  the  12th.  They 
lowered  during  the  L2th,  as  follows:  On  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan, 
in  the  morning,  Lukes  Huron  and  Erie,  Long  Island  Sound,  and  the 
New  Jersey  coast  in  the  afternoon,  and  at  the  remaining  stations  at  mid- 
night. These  signals  were  all  fully  justified;  the  greatest  wind  veloci- 
ties reported  were  as  follows:  Duluth,  N.W.,  32;  Alpena,  N.E.,  33; 
Cleveland  and  Brie,  S.W.,  34;  Buffalo,  W.  37;  Milwaukee,  S.  \\'.,  34; 
Thatcher's  Island,  S.E.,  33,  and  W.  33;  New  Shoreham,  S.  B.,  34,  and 
W.  :;■-':  Eastport,  S.E.,  34;  Wood's  Holl,  W.,  44.  and  X.W.,  44.  Thisgale 
was  very  severe  in  the  Lake  region,  along  the  New  England  coast,  and 
in  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  The  wind  velocities  at  Father  Point  on 
the  13th  were  as  follows:  a.m.,  W.,  50;  p.m.,  W.,  44;  iff.,  N.W.,  40. 
On  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  in  addition  to  the  foundering  of  the 
schooners  Norway  and  Morning  Star,  by  which  15  lives  were  lost,  many 
vessels  were  seriously  damaged  and  a  number  driven  ashore. 

No.  VII. — This  area  moved  southeastward  from  Manitoba,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  15th  was  central  in  Minnesota;  Duluth  barometer 
0.48  below  the  normal.  The  centre  continued  in  a  southeast  course  and, 
passing  over  Lake  Michigan,  was  central,  with  increased  pressure  in 
Southern  Michigan  the  morning  of  the  16th,  whence  it  passed  north- 
eastward into  Canada  during  that  day.  Cautionary  signals  were  ordered 
for  the  Upper  Lake  region  at  midnight  of  the  14th,  and  for  the  stations 
on  the  other  Lakes,  except  Ontario,  the  following  day.  They  were 
lowered  on  the  Upper  Lakes  during  the  15th,  and  at  the  Lower  Lake 
stations  on  the  following  morning.  These  signals  were  justified  by  rough 
weather  and  high  winds,  the  schooner  E.  M.  Carrington  being  lost,  with 
a  crew  of  five,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  three  vessels  foundered  or  totally 
wrecked  (crews#saved)  on  Lake  Erie.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
maximum  velocities  which  were  reported:  Buffalo,  S.W.,  25;  Toledo,  S.W., 
27;  Marquette,  W.,  27;  Duluth,  N.W.,  30;  Grand  Haven,  N.W.,  32; 
Port  Huron,  W.,  33. 

No.  X. — During  the  18th  the  pressure  gradually  decreased  over  the 
Plateau  regions,  and  by  midnight  this  area  was  central  in  Nebraska; 
Cheyenne  barometer  0.23  below  the  normal.  Moving  northeastward, 
the  centre,  on  the  morning  of  the  20th,  was  over  the  eastern  end  of  Lake 
Superior,  whence  it  passed  eastward,  with  increasing  violence,  through 
Canada  and  reached  the  Saint  Lawrence  Valley  at  midnight.  On  the 
morning  of  the  21st,  it  united  over  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  with  low 
area  No.  XL  On  the  morning  of  the  20th,  cautionary  signals  were 
ordered  for  Lakes  Michigan,  Huron,  and  Erie,  and  that  afternoon  for 
Lake  Ontario.     These  signals  were  lowered  on  the  21st  in  the  Upper 


284  THE   WEATHER. 

Lake  region  and  on  the  following  morning  at  the  Lower  Lake  stations.. 
This  storm  was  unusually  severe  over  Lake  Ontario,  where  four  vessels 
were  wrecked  an  el  ten  others  badly  damaged.  At  Buffalo  one  vessel  was 
sunk,  and  one  person  drowned.  The  following  maximum  velocities 
were  reported:  Marquette,  W.,  26;  Milwaukee,  W.  36;  Alpena  and  Port 
Huron,  W.,  34;  Erie,  S.W.,  42;  Oswego,  W.,  33;  Buffalo,  W.,  37. 

No.  XL — During  the  night  of  the  19th  and  20th,  the  pressure  de- 
creased rapidly  along  the  South  Atlantic  coast.  On  the  morning  of  the 
20th  the  barometric  fall  extending  northward,  became  more  sudden  and 
marked  ;  New  London  barometer  0.34  below  the  normal  (a  fall  of  0.39 
in  eight  hours),  Cape  Hatteras  barometer  0.31  below  the  normal  (a  de- 
crease of  0.20  in  eight  hours).  The  lowest  pressure  connected  with 
area  No.  X.  was  then  0.30  below  the  normal  at  Parry  Sound.  At  mid- 
night this  area  was  central  over  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  with  the  following 
decrease  of  pressure  reported  for  the  past  eight  hours  :  Sydney,  0.38 
inch;  Father  Point,  0.39;  Chatham,  0.50;  Halifax,  0.59;  Eastport,  0.61, 
and  Yarmouth,  0.71.  On  the  morning  of  the  21st  the  area  united  with 
No.  X.  over  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence;  Sydney  barometer  29.29  or 
0.61  below  the  normal  (a  fall  of  0.71  in  eight  hours  and  1.09  in  sixteen 
hours).  Cautionary  signals  were  displayed  during  the  20th  for  New 
England  and  the  North  Carolina  coast,  and  were  lowered,  in  the  latter 
district,  at  midnight.  Cautionary  off-shore  signals  were  also  ordered  for 
the  New  Jersey  coast.  In  New  England,  except  for  Eastport,  these 
signals  were  later  changed  to  off-shore.  These  signals  were  lowered  on 
the  New  Jersey  coast  on  the  morning  of  the  21st,  but  were  continued  at 
the  remaining  stations  until  the  morning  of  the  22d.  This  storm  was. 
one  of  unusual  violence  off  the  New  England  coast,  the  Canadian  mari- 
time provinces,  and  off  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  continuing  in  the 
latter  district  until  the  25th.  A  dispatch  from  Saint  John's,  N.  F.,  re- 
ports that  over  thirty  vessels  were  lost;  fourteen  in  Bona  Vista  Harbor, 
six  in  Conception  Bay,  several  in  Green  Bay.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  wind  velocities  reported:  Portland,  W.,  31;  New  Shoreham, 
N.W.,  42;  Boston,  W.,  44;  Wood's  Holl,  N.W.,  44;  Thatcher's  Island, 
N.W.,  40;  Yarmouth,  N.,  55;  Father  Point,  21st,  a.m.,  W.,  48,  p.m.,. 
W.,  84,  m.,  W.,  65;  22d,  a.m.,  W.,  54,  p.m.,  W.,  60  m.,  W.,  48. 

TEMPERATURE    OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  November,  1880,  is  indicated  by 
isotherms  on  the  Chart.  The  mean  in  every  district  of  the  country 
has  been  below  the  normal.  Such  deviations  from  the  normal  exceeded 
5°  over  the  entire  country,  except  California,  the  Atlantic  and  East  Gulf 
States,  and  the  Lake  Ontario  region.  The  following  are  the  most 
notable  departures  at  various  stations:  St.  Louis,  Indianapolis,  India- 
nola,  Corsicana,  Brownsville,  and  Denison,  from  10.2°  to  11.0°;  San  An- 


THE    u  i   LI  ii  i  B. 

tonio,  North  Platte,  Ooncho,  and  Laredo,  from  l<>.r>  t<.  L2.1  ;  Fori 
Gibson  L2.6  :  Cheyenne  L3  ;  Rio  Grande  City  and    Fori  Griffin,  Te 

|:;.l   ;    Fort   Davis,  Texas    and    Dodge    City,    L3.*3   ,  and    Denver.     L6.3°. 

Excepl  in  the  At  Ian  tie  States  and  the  Lake  Ontario  region  (where  either 
November,  1873,  or  L875,  was  slightly  colder),  the  presenl  month  has 
been  the  ooldesi  since  the  establishment  of  the  Signal  Service  Btations. 
Prom  detached  stations,  not  included  in  districts,  the  following  depar- 
tures from  the  mean  are  noted:  .Mount  Washington,  2.3°  below;  Pike's 
Teak,  Ll-2°;  Key  West,  3.6°  below;  Punta  Rassa,  5.4° above.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  extremely  low  temperature  of  then  ion  tli,  and  tlie  defieienev 
of  temperature  in  Northern  Florida  and  at  Key  West,  it  is  particularly 
noticeable  that  the  mean  temperature  at  Punta  Rassa  should  he  the 
highest  of  any  year  since  its  establishment  in  1871;  November,  1873, 
only  excepted. 

PRECIPITATION". 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall  (including  melted  snow)  for  No- 
vember, 1880,  is  shown  on  the  Chart,  as  accurately  as  possible, 
from  about  five  hundred  reports.  The  belt  of  greatest  rain-fall  extended 
from  the  mountain  region  of  North  Carolina  southwestward  to  Eastern 
Texas.  Southern  Arizona  is  the  only  section  of  country  over  which  no 
rain  has  fallen  during  the  month.  The  rain-fall  in  New  England  and 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States  continues  deficient.  In  the  first  district,  the 
deficiencies  since  January  1st,  1880,  amount  to  6.51  inches,  in  the  latter 
to  4.00.  A  marked  excess  has  been  reported  from  Tennessee,  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  amounting  in  the  "Western  Gulf  district  to 
3.38  inches — the  greatest  excess  of  the  month.  The  departures  from 
t  he  average  precipitation  at  certain  stations  in  the  last-named  district 
were  as  follows:  Corsicana,  2.05,  above;  Shreveport,  2.89  above;  Gal- 
veston, 3.30  above;  and  Vicksburg,  9.52  above;  the  rain-fall  at  the  last 
station  was  over  three  times  the  normal  amount.  On  the  Pacific  coast, 
the  rainfall  has  been  generally  deficient,  being  only  about  one-third  of 
the  average.  In  districts  not  named,  the  deviations  from  the  normal 
rain-fall  have  been  less  important. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:  New  England,  9  to  21.  Middle  Atlantic  States,  7  to  18. 
South  Atlantic  States,  L3  to  21.  Eastern  Gulf  States.  7  to  18.  Western 
(iulf  States,  11  to 22.  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  13  to  1 ',.  Lower  Lake 
region,  17  to  21.  Upper  Lake  region.  12  to  18.  Tj  }>|  ><m-  Mississippi 
Valley,  9  to  11.  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  6  to  15.  Valley  of  the  Red 
River  of  the  North,  9  to  11.  Texas,  2  to  17.  Rocky  Mountains,  0  to 
11.     Middle  Plateau.  1  to  13.     California,  1  to  3.     Oregon,  1  to  11. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varies  in  New  England  from  3  to  18. 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  5  to  15.  South  Atlantic  States,  11  to  20. 
Eastern  Gulf  States,  2  to  18.     Western  Gulf  States,  13  to  19.     Ohio 


2S6  THE   WEATHER. 

Valley  and  Tennessee,  10  to  17.  Lower  Lake  region,  13  to  20.  Upper 
Lake  region,  10  to  19.  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  9  to  14.  Missouri 
Valley,  9  to  12.  Valley  of  the  Bed  Eiver  of  the  North,  6  to  9.  Texas, 
10  to  19.  Eocky  Mountains,  3  to  9.  Middle  Plateau,  3  to  9.  Cali- 
fornia, 1  to  4.     Oregon,  9  to  12. 

Droughts. — Wellington,  Kans., ,30th,  streams  and  springs  drying  up. 
Mendon,  Mass.,  30th,  many  wells  dry.  Westborough,  Mass.,  30th, 
brooks,  springs,  and  wells  very  low.  Antrim,  N.  H.,  streams  un- 
usually low. 

Snow  from  cloudless  sky. — Lawrence,  Kans.,  27th.  New  Ulm,  Minn., 
28th.     Santa  Fe,  5th. 

RELATIVE   HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  New  England,  63  to  75.  Middle  Atlantic  States,  66  to  90. 
South  Atlantic  States,  65  to  83.  Eastern  Gulf  States,  69  to  83.  Western 
Gulf  States,  64  to  82.  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  64  to  80.  Lower 
Lake  region,  69  to  75.  Upper  Lake  region,  66  to  86.  Upper  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  63  to  71.  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  60  to  79.  Ked  River 
of  the  North  Valley,  78  to  85.  Texas,  66  to  82.  Middle  Plateau,  36  to 
59.  California,  43  to  59.  Oregon,  74  to  83.  High  stations  report  the  fol- 
lowing percentages  not  corrected  for  altitude:  Mount  Washington,  88.6; 
Pike's  Peak,  60.6;  Santa  Ee,  55.2;  Cheyenne,  56.1;  Denver,  64.3. 

wi:n"ds. 

The  prevailing  winds  at  Signal  Service  stations  are  shown  on  the 
Chart  by  arrows  which  fly  with  the  wind.  Westerly  winds  have 
prevailed  in  the  Lake  region  and  New  England;  northwesterly  winds  in 
the  Middle  States;  northeasterly  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  East  Gulf 
States;  elsewhere  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  they  have  been  northerly, 
except  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  where  they  were  from  northwest 
to  southwest. 

High  ivinds. — On  Mount  Washington  a  velocity  of  105  miles,  N.W., 
occurred  on  the  21st,  and  102,  N.W.,  on  the  7th  and  12th.  Maximum 
velocities,  ranging  from  52  to  96  miles,  occurred  on  eighteen  other  days; 
these  high  winds  were  from  the  northwest  on  all  but  five  days,  four  from 
the  south,  and  one  from  the  southwest.  Maximum  velocities,  exceed- 
ing fifty  miles  or  more,  occurred  elsewhere  as  follows:  Kittyhawk,  N., 
50,  on  the  23d;  Cape  Lookout,  E.,  50,  on  the  4th;  Buffalo,  S.W.,  52, 
on  the  7th;  Cape  May,  N.W.,  60,  on  the  21st;  Pike's  Peak,  W.,  70,  on 
the  20th. 

The  following  are  the  largest  total  movements  in  the  various  districts: 
Pike's  Peak,  15,645.  Cape  Lookout,  12,763.  Wood's  Holl,  12,316. 
Indianola,  12,109.    Cape  May,  11,667.   New  Shoreham,  11,602.    Mount 


mi;   u  i  \  i  ir. i;.  ^; 

Washington,  10,087,  incomplete  on  acconnl  of  Frost-work.  Sandusky, 
8,978.  North  Platte,  8,827.  Alpena,  8,303.  Breckinridge,  8,113. 
Bismarok,  8,085.  Winnemuoca,  6,040.  The  smallest  are:  Roseburg, 
1,135.  La  Mesilla,  1,208.  Visalia,  L,580.  Lynchburgh,  1,722.  Au- 
gnsta,  2,066.  Sail  Lake  City,  2,090.  Dvalde,  2,620.  Helena,  3,838. 
Nashville,  2,893.     Leavenworth,  3,031.    Springfield,  Mass.,  3,068. 

Local  storms,  worthy  of  record,  have  been  noted  in  connection  with 
the  various  high  and  low  areas,  except  as  follows:  A  violent  tornado  at 
Keachi,  De  Soto  Parish,  La.,  at  4.30  P.M.,  November  9th.  Its  course 
was  from  north  to  south,  in  a  path  about  250  yards  wide;  length  from 
eight  to  ten  miles.  On  Moore's  plantation,  four  miles  distant,  a  gin- 
house  was  blown  down,  killing  one  man  and  four  mules.  The  chapel 
and  other  buildings  connected  with  the  Baptist  Female  College  at 
Keachi  were  unroofed  or  badly  damaged;  seven  other  buildings  were  torn 
to  pieces  or  much  damaged.  In  Keachi  one  person  was  killed  and  nine 
were  injured,  three  seriously. 

Whirlwind. — Yuma,  Cal.,  21st,  travelling  from  southwest  to  north- 
east; cloud  funnel-shaped;  upper  end  lagged  behind  so  as  to  incline  the 
column  about  70  from  the  perpendicular;  cloud  about  10  feet  in  diameter 
and  appeared  to  revolve  from  left  to  right. 

Sand-storms. — Visalia,  Cal.,  17th,  18th,  very  severe  on  the  19th, 
killing  large  numbers  of  sheep.  Umatilla,  Oreg.,  7th,  very  severe. 
Near  Mammoth  Tank,  Cal.,  16th,  worst  ever  known;  stopped  railway 
traffic  for  sixteen  hours. 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Tliunder-storms  have  been  comparatively  rare,  except  in  the  Gulf 
States.  Storms  were  reported  from  more  than  one  station  in  that  dis- 
trict on  the  4th,  5th,  8th  to  10th,  12th,  16th,  19th,  and  30th. 

Auroras. — On  the  1st  the  aurora  was  visible  in  Maine,  Vermont,  and 
at  Bismarck,  Dak.  On  the  2d  and  3d  it  was  observed  generally  in  New 
England,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey.  The  most  southerly  station  re- 
porting it  on  the  former  date  was  Somerville,  N.  J.,  and  on  the  latter 
date,  Moorestown,  N.  J.  It  was  also  observed  on  the  2d  at  Saint  Vin- 
cent, Minn.,  and  on  the  3d  at  Dayton,  Wash.  On  the  21st  a  display  was 
observed  at  Newport,  II.  I.,  Wellsboro,  Pa.,  and  Lansing,  Mich.  On 
the  30th  a  display  was  general  in  the  northern  part  of  New  England; 
the  most  southerly  station  reporting  was  Somerset,  Mass. ;  it  was  noted 
the  same  day  at  Oswego,  Port  Huron,  and  Breckinridge.  Isolated  dis- 
plays are  reported  from  New  England  under  dates  of  the  4th,  6th,  and 
10th,  inclusive,  from  Pennsylvania  on  the  23d  and  26th,  from  Iowa  on 
the  14th,  25th,  and  29th,  Dakota  on  the  9th,  from  Minnesota  on  the 
20th,  23d,  27th,  and  29th,  and  from  Nebraska  on  the  28th,  from  Indiana 
on  the  20th,  from  Michigan  on  the  22d. 


THE   WEATHER. 


Til  i:    WEATHEB.  289 


6.     MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,   DECEMBER,    1880. 
BAROMETRIC    PBES8UBE. 

Upon  the  Chart  is  shown,  by  the  isobaric  lines,  the  distribution  of 
atmospheric  pressures  over  the  United  States  for  December,  1880.  The 
area  of  highest  pressure  lies  somewhat  farther  westward  than  usual 
and  covers  tin-  greater  part  of  the  country  from  the  Mississippi  Valley 
westward  to  the  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  slope.  On  the  Pacific  slope, 
the  high  pressure  prevailed  on  the  southern  instead  of  the  northern 
coast. 

Departures  from  normal  ralues  for  the  month. — By  comparison  with 
the  average  for  the  past  eight  or  nine  years,  it  is  found  that  the  baro- 
metric pressure  for  December,  1880,  ranged  from  0.05  inch  to  0.10  below 
the  mean  in  the  Atlantic  States;  greatest  departures,  —0.10  at  Norfolk 
and  Wilmington,  and  —0.12  at  New  Haven  and  Wood's  iloll.  Over  the 
Missouri  and  Upper  Mississippi  Valleys,  an  equal  excess  of  pressure  pre- 
vailed; greatest  departures,  +0.05  inch  at  Keokuk,  La  Crosse  and  Saint 
Paul  in  the  latter,  and  +0.11  at  Bismarck  and  Yankton  in  the  former 
district.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  the  pressure  was  normal  at  San  Diego, 
O.10  below  it  at  San  Francisco,  and  0.24  below  at  Portland,  Oreg. 

Local  barometer  ranges,  from  readings  reduced  to  sea-level,  were 
greater  than  usual,  and  exceeded  0.75  inch  over  the  entire  country,  ex- 
cept Southern  Florida,  Southern  California,  and  at  a  few  scattered  stations 
in  the  Southern  Plateau  district.  The  ranges  in  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States  generally  varied  but  little  from  1  inch.  The  greatest  ranges  were 
in  that  portion  of  the  Lake  region  and  Upper  Mississippi  Valley  over 
which  the  centre  of  low  area  No.  V.  passed;  they  increased  gradually 
northeastward  from  1.47  at  Leavenworth  to  1.79  (the  largest  in  the 
country)  at  Escanaba.  The  smallest  range  was  0.49  at  Key  West.  Other 
noticeable  ranges  were  1.70  at  Dodge  City,  1.48  at  Missoula,  and  1.27  at 
Umatilla. 

General  barometer  range. — The  extreme  range  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  reduced  to  sea-level,  was  2.15  inches,  from  30. 97  at  Fort  Buford 
on  the  26th  to  28.82  at  Dodge  City  on  the  4th. 

Areas  of  high  pressure  during  December,  1880,  were  eight  in  number, 
three  of  which  were  slight  and  unimportant  encroachments  of  high  pres- 
sures from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  five  other  areas  were  outflows  of  very 
cold  air  from  the  British  Possessions,  and,  except  No.  V.  (which  seems 
to  have  moved  southward  from  Hudson's  Bay),  advanced  southeastward, 
anparentlv  f rom  Saskatchewan.  No.  VIII.  was  the  most  important  area, 
V.) 


290  THE   WEATHER. 

its  passage  being  marked  from  the  24th  to  the  31st  by  excessively  low 
temperatures  which  materially  reduced  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
month,  and  made  in  many  sections  the  last  half  of  the  month  the  coldest 
for  many  years. 

No.  VIII.  was  the  most  important  high  area  of  the  month.  It  first 
showed  itself  by  a  marked  rise  in  barometer  over  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Missouri  during  the  24th;  the  next  morning  the  temperature  at  Fort 
Garry  was  —35°.  The  pressure  remained  nearly  stationary  until  the  26th, 
when  a  second  rise  carried  the  pressure  at  Fort  Buford  to  30.97.  The 
area  covered  the  Missouri  Valley  until  the  28th,  when  it  moved  rapidly 
southeastward,  being  central  in  Texas  on  the  29th;  midnight  barometer 
at  Eagle  Pass  30.65  or  0.52  above  the  normal.  A  portion  of  the  area 
remaining  in  Texas  slowly  dissipated,  while  another  part  moving  north- 
eastward covered  the  Atlantic  slope  with  a  pressure  decidedly  above  the 
mean  during  the  31st;  Cape  Henry  barometer  that  morning  0.30  above 
the  normal.  Cautionary  signals  were  displayed  on  Lake  Michigan  on 
the  27th  (highest  velocity  35  miles  at  Milwaukee)  and  on  the  29th  (40' 
miles  at  Grand  Haven).  The  minimum  temperatures  which  prevailed 
during  the  passage  of  this  area  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  were  the 
lowest  observed  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country  for  many  years.  As 
the  area  moved  southeastward  on  the  morning  of  the  28th  a  minimum 
temperature  of  —44°  was  reported  from  Fort  Garry.  At  that  time  the 
temperature  of  the  Missouri  and  Upper  Mississippi  Valleys,  the  Upper 
Lake  region,  and  the  North  Rocky  Mountain  slope  was  below  zero.  On 
the  morning  of  the  29th  the  area  over  which  temperatures  below  zero 
prevailed  was  extended  to  include  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Indian  Territory  and  Texas,  while  at  Fort  Benton,  Montana,  a 
temperature  of  -59°  was  observed.  This  temperature  (that  observed 
at  Pembina  on  December  24th,  1879,  being  the  same)  is  the  lowest 
ever  recorded  in  the  United  States,  and  is  within  14.8°  of  the  low- 
est ever  reported  on  this  continent  (British  Arctic  Expedition 
of  1875-'76,  -73°. 8  at  Floeberg  Beach,  82°  27'  N.  173°  26'  W. 
in  March,  1876).  On  the  morning  of  the  30th,  temperatures  ranging 
from  0°  to  —56°  were  reported  from  the  entire  Lake  region,  the  Ohio, 
Upper  Mississippi,  and  Upper  Missouri  Valleys,  the  Rocky  Mountain 
slope  southward  to  include  the  northern  parts  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico, 
from  the  greater  part  of  New  England,  from  the  Middle  States  (except 
Southeastern  Virginia),  from  the  western  half  of  North  Carolina  and 
Eastern  Tennessee.  On  the  31st,  temperatures  below  zero  prevailed  over 
substantially  the  same  region,  with  the  addition  of  the  greater  part  of 
New  Mexico  and  portions  of  Texas  and  New  England.  On  that  and  the 
preceding  morning  freezing  temperatures  prevailed  over  the  entire 
United  States  except  the  Pacific  coast  region,  the  southern  half  of 
Florida,  and  the  extreme  southwestern  portion  of  Arizona.  The  follow- 
ing temperatures  in  Arizona  and  the  Gulf  States  are  noted  as  of  interest: 


THE    wi  A  I  in  B.  291 

Tacsozi  35  .  Oedar  Keys  22  .  NVw  Orleans  20  ,  Jacksonville  L9  .  Browns- 
ville 18  .  Mobile  I  I  .  Montgomery  8  ,  Augusta  ',  .  Much  damage 
done  by  the  low  temperature  of  this  area  to  the  sugar  cane  in  Louisiana 
and  adjoining  States.  Timely  and  sufficient  warning,  however,  was 
given  to  planters  bo  that  they  could  take  Buch  means  as  would  save  the 
largest  possible  amount  of  the  cane. 

Arms  of  low  pressure. — Sixteen  such  areas  appeared  during  Decem- 
ber, 1880.  The  tracks  of  thirteen  are  shown  by  the  Chart.  An  un- 
usually large  number  of  these  areas,  six  in  number,  first  appeared  on  the 
Pacific  coast;  four  of  the  number  crossed  the  continent.  One  area 
sprang  up  in  the  Lower  Lake  region,  one  in  North  Carolina,  t\vo*in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  three  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region;  the  three 
remaining  probably  developed  in  Saskatchewan.  No.  III.,  as  a  whole, 
was  the  most  severe  storm,  being  violent  on  the  Pacific  slope,  accom- 
panied by  tornadoes  in  Missouri,  and  marked  in  the  Lake  region  by  the 
lowest  pressures  and  highest  winds  of  the  month.  Nos.  X.,  XII.,  and 
XI 1 1,  caused  strong  gales  off  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  connection  with 
the  last-named  area,  most  violent  northeast  to  northwest  gales  prevailed 
from  North  Carolina  to  Nova  Scotia  during  the  25th  and  26th.  No. 
XV.  was  marked  by  very  severe  gales  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  along 
the  entire  Atlantic  coast  during  the  29th.  This  area  moved  with  unusual 
rapidity,  its  velocity  east  of  the  100th  meridian  averaging  seventy-five 
miles  per  hour.  The  paths  pursued  by  areas  for  the  first  half  of  the 
month  were,  through  their  whole  extent  and  without  exception,  to  the 
northward  of  the  40th  parallel.  During  that  time  the  pressure  over  the 
country  was  comparatively  low.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  month 
the  pressure  over  the  country  at  large  was  decidedly  above  the  normal, 
and  at  no  time  gave  way  so  as  to  permit  the  natural  movement  of  the  low 
areas  eastward.  In  consequence  the  tracks  of  low  areas  skirted  the  bor- 
ders of  the  prevailing  high  pressures.  The  areas  on  the  Pacific  slope 
moved  southeastward  along  the  coast,  and  such  as  have  crossed  the  con- 
tinent passed  southeastward  through  Texas,  and  skirting  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  moved  northeastward  along  the  Atlantic 
coast. 

No.  III. — This  storm  was  unusually  violent  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Off 
Columbia  River,  heavy  W.S.W.  gales,  veering  to  N."W.  were  experienced 
from  November  29th  to  December  3d,  and  off  the  coast  of  Southern 
Oregon  during  the  2d  and  3d;  lowest  barometer  29.12,  reported  by  the 
steamer  Elder.  During  the  2d,  along  the  entire  coast  of  California, 
heavy  southerly  gales  occurred,  in  which  one  or  more  vessels  were  lost. 
The  storm  apparently  moving  from  the  northwest,  entered  Oregon  dur- 
ing the  2d;  Roseburg  barometer  that  morning,  29.26  or  0.91  below  the 
normal.  Moving  very  slowly  southeastward,  it  was  central  in  Utah  at 
midnight  of  the  3d.  Its  passage  through  California  and  Nevada  was 
marked  by  heavy  rains.     At  San  Luis  Obispo  the  rain-fall  of  the  storm 


292  THE   WEATHER. 

was  4.65  inches  and  at  Mount  St.  Helena  6.65.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  along  the  Central  Pacific  Kailway,  four  feet  of  snow  fell  upon 
a  level.  Railway  travel  was  somewhat  delayed  by  dangerous  land-slides 
and  heavy  snow,  in  Western  Oregon,  the  snow-fall  was  from  2^-  to  3 
feet,  east  of  the  Cascades.  The  storm  being  followed  by  low  tempera- 
tures in  the  valley  of  the  Columbia,  so  blocked  that  river  by  ice  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Willamette  as  to  prevent  any  navigation  until  after  the 
12th.  Below  the  Willamette,  navigation  was  seriously  interfered  with 
for  several  days  by  an  ice-gorge  on  Willow  bar,  four  miles  long.  From 
Utah,  the  area  moved  rapidly  eastward  with  decreasing  pressure,  and 
was  central  the  afternoon  of  the  4th,  in  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley; 
Omaha  barometer  0.77  below  the  normal.  At  that  observation,  warm 
(the  highest  temperatures  of  the  month)  southerly  winds,  with  rain,  pre- 
vailed in  the  east  and  south  quadrants  of  this  area  while  an  abnormal 
barometric  fall  of  0.33  inch  in  the  past  eight  hours  was  reported  from 
Des  Moines  and  a  maximum  temperature  from  Leavenworth  of  59°.  At 
the  same  time  in  the  northwest  quadrant,  high  area  No.  II.  was  rapidly 
advancing,  its  progress  marked  by  high  N.W.  winds  with  snow,  and 
temperatures  below  zero  in  Southern  Dakota  (Deadwood,  —11°). 

At  midnight  on  the  4th,  barometric  low  area  No.  II.  had  moved 
rapidly  northeastward  to  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  with  abnormal 
barometric  falls  in  eight  hours  of  0.28  at  Davenport  and  0.29  at  Mil- 
waukee, while  the  following  high  area  caused  an  abnormal  rise  of  0.31 
at  Omaha  and  0.35  at  North  Platte  and  a  fall  of  39°  in  temperature  at 
Leavenworth  during  the  same  time.  Consequent  upon  such  rapid 
changes,  numerous  tornadoes  occurred  on  the  4th  in  Southwest  Missouri. 
They  are  elsewhere  described  under  the  head  of  Local  Storms.  On  the 
morning  of  the  5th,  the  area  was  central,  with  greatly  decreased  pressure 
in  Northern  Michigan;  Escanaba  barometer  28.92  or  1.09  below  the 
normal.  At  that  time  the  storm  over  the  Upper  Lake  region  (in  con- 
nection with  high  area  No.  II.)  was  unusually  severe;  maximum  wind 
velocity  at  Milwaukee  S.W.  53  miles,  and  Duluth  N.W.  47  miles.  As 
navigation  had  practically  closed  in  the  Lake  region,  few  or  no  disasters 
occurred  to  shipping  on  the  Lakes.  On  that  day,  in  connection  with  these 
areas,  the  maximum  wind  velocities,  the  lowest  barometric  pressures,  and 
highest  temperatures  of  the  month  occurred  at  nearly  every  station  in 
the  Lake  region,  the  Ohio,  Lower  Missouri,  and  Upper  Mississippi  Val- 
leys. Moving  rapidly  northeastward  down  the  Valley  of  the  Saint  Law- 
rence, it  had  reached,  with  increasing  pressure  and  diminishing  violence, 
by  the  afternoon  of  the  6th,  its  northeastern  limits.  Signals  were  dis- 
played for  this  area  in  the  Lake  region  during  the  4th  and  5th,  and  along 
the  Atlantic  coast  northward  of  Macon  during  the  5th.  These  signals 
were  justified  with  but  few  exceptions,  though  ordered  somewhat  late  for 
Lake  Ontario,  the  North  Carolina,  and  Maine  coasts.  The  following  are 
the  highest  wind  velocities  reported:  Cape  Henry,  S.W.  27;  Eastport, 


THE    \\  i:\iiii.i;. 

S.E.  28;  Barnegat,  8.  84;  Buffalo,  W.  41;    Sandusky,  S.W.  41;  Port 
I Iiii-c.ii.  s.w.  12;  Duluth,  N.N.  17;  Milwaukee,  S.W.  53. 

No.  I V.  appears  bo  have  sprung  up  Crom  I  he  remains  of  No.  III.  ,\  -■ 
that  area  moved  down  the  valley  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  on  the  morning 
of  the  6th,  the  pressure  fell  in  North  Carolina;  Kittyhawk  barometer 
thai  afternoon,  0.37  below  the  normal.  The  track  of  the  area  is  uncer- 
tain, but  it  probably  moved  northeastward  to  the  Hanks  of  Newfound- 
land in  a  course  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast.  The  lowest  pres 
noted  was  at  Sydney.  0.  B.,  the  afternoon  of  the  7th,  29.39  or  0.54  lie- 
low  the  normal.  Cautionary  signals  were  displayed  during  the  Gth  and 
7th,  from  Cape  Henry  to  Cape  Hatteras.  A  wind  velocity  of  40  N.AV. 
was  reported  from  the  first-named  station. 

No.  V.  first  appeared  the  morning  of  the  7th,  in  Nebraska,  and, 
moving  rapidly  eastward,  was  central  in  Iowa  at  midnight;  Des  Moines 
barometer  0.18  below  the  normal.  It  moved  thence  with  great  rapidity 
and  diminishing  pressure  to  Georgian  Bay;  Parry  Sound  barometer  a.m. 
of  the  8th,  0.33  below  the  normal;  it  then  followed  an  eastern  course  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  was  south  of  Newfoundland  on  the  morning  of 
the  9th.  Its  centre  was  followed  by  strong  westerly  gales,  with  snow 
in  the  Lake  region.  Signals  were  displayed  in  the  Lower  Lake  region 
from  midnight  of  the  6th  to  midnight  of  the  7th  and  were  fully  justified. 
Erie,  S.W.  28  miles,  and  Rochester,  W.  31. 

No.  VI.  apparently  developed  in  Manitobia  during  the  10th,  and 
moving  southeastward,  was  in  Minnesota  the  morning  of  the  11th. 
Moving  eastwardly  with  diminished  pressure,  it  was  in  Ontario  at  mid- 
night of  the  12th;  Saugeen  barometer  0.49  below  the  normal.  It  passed 
thence  northeastward  through  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces  to  the 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  Cautionary  signals  were  ordered  for  all  the 
lakes  except  Ontario,  but  were  not  justified,  although  velocities  above 
20  miles  were  reported  from  nearly  every  station. 

No.  VII.  was  apparently  central  to  the  northward  of  Fort  Buford  at 
midnight  of  the  12th;  moving  southeastward  with  rapidly  decreasing 
pressure,  it  was  central  the  morning  of  the  14th  over  Lake  Michigan  ; 
Escanaba  barometer  0.G7  and  Grand  Haven  barometer  0.68  below  the 
normal.  It  then  passed  northeastward  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence 
(closely  following  the  path  of  No.  VI.)  which  it  reached  the  morning  of 
the  lGth.  The  pressure  remained  very  low  over  the  maritime  provinces 
from  the  lGth  until  the  19th;  Sydney  barometer  at  the  p.m.  report  of 
the  latter  date  0.74  below  the  normal,  after  which  the  pressure  rapidly 
increased.  Cautionary  signals  were  displayed  in  the  Lower  Lake  region 
during  the  14th,  and  were  justified  by  the  velocities  :  Port  Huron,  W. 
25;  Sandusky,  S.W.  29;  Buffalo,  S.W.  30.  The  signal  displayed  at 
Eastport  on  the  15th  was  also  justified  by  a  velocity  of  E.  3G  miles. 

No.  XV.  appeared  on  the  Oregon  coast  during  the  2Gth;  Eoseburg 
barometer  the  morning  of  the  27th,  0.37  below  the  normal.     Its  move- 


294  THE    WEATHER. 

ment  thence  was  very  rapid,  and,  though  decidedly  abnormal,  was  very 
similar  to  that  of  low  area  No.  XIII.  of  this  month  and  No.  XV.  of  De- 
cember, 1877.  Its  centre  was  apparently  that  afternoon  (27th)  in  South- 
western Idaho,  at  midnight  in  Utah,  and  on  the  following  morning  in 
"Western  Texas;  Stockton  barometer  at  last  report,  0.34  below  the  normal. 
On  the  afternoon  of  the  28th  the  lowest  pressure  was  in  the  Eio  Grande 
Valley  0.32  below  the  normal.  It  moved  thence  eastward  across  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  passing  over  Northern  Florida  followed,  during  the 
29th,  a  northeasterly  path,  nearly  parallel  with,  and  at  some  distance 
from,  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  lowest  pressure  noted  on  that  day  was  at 
Cape  Lookout,  p.m.,  barometer  0.50  below  the  normal.  Off-shore  signals 
were  displayed  on  the  Texas  coast  from  the  26th  to  the  29th,  and  cau- 
tionary signals  in  the  Eastern  Gulf  and  along  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far 
north  as  Delaware  Breakwater  on  the  28th  and  29th.  Cautionary  signals 
were  also  displayed  from  Cape  May  northward  to  Eastport  from  the 
afternoon  of  the  29th  to  the  morning  of  the  30th.  These  signals  Avere 
fully  justified  by  the  following  maximum  velocities:  Macon  and  Cape 
Lookout,  N.W.  32  miles;  Pensacola,  N.  40;  Wood's  Holl,  N.W.  43; 
Thatcher's  Island,  W.  42;  Indianola,  N.  51;  Cape  May,  N.  52. 

TEMPERATURE    OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  December,  1880,  is  indicated  by 
isotherms  on  the  Chart.  The  mean  in  every  district  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  has  been  below  the  normal.  Over  the  country  to  the  west- 
ward, the  temperature  has  been  slightly  above  the  normal,  except  at  Port- 
land, Oreg.,  where  a  deficiency  of  2.2°  prevailed.  The  temperature 
has  been  deficient  5°  or  more  over  the  entire  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  Upper 
Mississippi  Valleys,  the  Lake  region  (except  northeastern  New  York), 
the  Middle  States,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina,  From  the  Upper 
Missouri  Valley  deficiencies  are  reported,  ranging  from  10.5°  at  Bis- 
marck to  13.5°  at  Fort  Buford,  and  18°  at  Fort  Shaw.  During  the  past 
ten  years,  lower  mean  temperatures  during  December  occurred  generally 
east  of  the  Missouri  Valley  in  1872  and  1876;  also  in  1878  over  the  Gulf 
States,  and  in  1879  over  the  Missouri  Valley.  At  Baltimore  and  Wash- 
ington alone,  the  lowest  mean  temperatures  of  the  past  decade  occurred. 
The  following  deviations  at  detached  stations,  not  included  in  the  dis- 
tricts, are  noted:  Mount  Washington,  0.3°;  Pike's  Peak,  +1.5°;  Key 
West,  2.9°;  Punta  Rassa,  2.0°.  The  following  are  extracts  from  reports 
of  voluntary  observers:  Kansas:  Lawrence,  mean  3.05°  below  that  of 
the  past  twelve  years.  Holton,  month  unusually  cold.  Maine:  Gar- 
diner, month  remarkable,  not  for  its  extreme  cold,  but  for  its  uni- 
formity of  temperature;  mean  temperature  for  past  forty-five  years, 
22.10°,  for  December,  1880,  0.25°  below.  Maryland:  Fallston,  mean 
lowest  in  past   ten   years,  except   December,   1876.     Nebraska:  Genoa, 


I  ill.    \\  BATHER. 


!".»:» 


month  very  oold.     New  Hampshire:  Lake  Village,  Lake  Winnepiseogee 

closed  by  ice  on  bhe  24th;  cue  to  two  weeks  earlier  than  usual.  Oon- 
tookville.  mean,  -2°  below  that  of  ten  years.  New  Jersey:  Newark, 
mean.  7.2°  below  the  average  of  :;."»  years;   the  last    decade  of  the   month 

lower  by  12°   than   Buch   average.     New   York:  North  Volney,  mean, 

4.85°  below  that  of  December  for  past  ten  years.  Friendship,  coldesl 
weather  for  years.  I  leet  or,  month  unusually  cold.  Ohio:  Eudson,  month 
remarkably  cold.  Pennsylvania:  Wellsboro,  mean  lowest  for  past 
ten  years;  during  the  last  four  days  of  the  month  the  temperature 
ranged  lower  than  in  any  preceding  December  for  twenty  years.  Vir- 
ginia: Dover  Mines,  mean  13.1°  lower  than  in  1879;  Wyethville,  month 
very  cold.  West  I  rirgin ia  :  Helvetia,  coldest  in  five  years.  Wellsburg, 
coldest  for  many  years. 

Frost. — Frosts  were  usually  frequent  and  severe.  Those  in  the  Gulf 
States  from  the  9th  to  the  12th  and  from  the  25th  to  the  31st  were  ex- 
ceedingly severe,  that  of  the  end  of  the  month  injuring  vegetation 
in  Texas  even  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  on  the  Florida 
coast  to  near  Punta  Rassa.  The  only  sections  not  visited  by  frost  were 
Southern  Florida  and  the  extreme  southwestern  portion  of  Arizona; 
certain  sheltered  stations  in  Southern  California  also  escaped  it. 

PRECIPITATION. 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall  (including  melted  snow)  for  De- 
cember, 1880,  is  shown  on  the  Chart,  from  the  reports  of  over  500  sta- 
tions. The  region  of  greatest  rain-fall  included  the  Pacific  slope  north- 
ward of  Central  California;  on  the  Atlantic  slope  the  rain-fall  was 
heaviest  along  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Virginia.  In  New 
England  the  rain-fall  continued  deficient,  except  in  Maine  and  Connec- 
ticut. The  excess  in  the  Middle  States  was  very  marked  on  the  coast. 
and  gradually  diminished  toward  the  interior.  In  the  South  Atlantic 
States  the  rain-fall  was  especially  local;  the  departures  from  the  means 
of  various  stations  being:  Jacksonville,  1.90  inches;  Charleston,  2.48; 
Cape  Lookout,  5.04;  Kittyhawk,  +0.93;  Charleston,  +4.52.  In  the 
Gulf  States  the  deficiency  was  general  (except  an  excess  in  Eastern  Ala- 
bama) and  well  distributed,  with  the  peculiarity,  however,  of  an  excess 
of  1.67  at  New  Orleans;  over  Eastern  Texas  and  Western  Louisiana  the 
departures  ranged  from  2.83  inches  at  Shrove*  port  to  3.50  at  Indianola,  and 
3.60  at  Corsicana.  In  the  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee  the  deficiency  was 
general,  with  an  excess  at  one  station  (Cincinnati)  of  0.51  inch.  In  the 
Lake  region  the  greatest  deficiencies  occurred  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Lake  Erie  and  the  southwest  part  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  deficiencies 
in  the  Upper  Mississippi  and  Lower  Missouri  Valleys  were  well  distrib- 
uted. Over  the  region  of  least  rain-fall,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  prob- 
.ably  not  more  than  one-quarter  of  the  usual  amount  fell.     The  excess  on 


296  THE   WEATHEK. 

the  Pacific  slope  amounted  at  San  Diego  to  1.80,  at  San  Francisco  to  7.64, 
and  at  Portland,  Oreg.,  to  7.69  inches.  At  Bainbridge  Island,  Wash. 
Ter.,  the  month's  rain-fall  was  the  greatest  ever  recorded  (twenty  years' 
record),  being  17.25  inches,  which  is  3.55  larger  than  that  of  March, 
1875. 

Rainy  days. — Rain  (or  melted  snow)  to  the  amount  of  0.01  inch  has 
fallen  on  an  unusual  number  of  days  in  the  country  at  large.  Such  days 
generally  numbered  from  18  to  22  in  the  Lake  region  and  Ohio  Valley 
elsewhere  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  eastward  from  12  to  18.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  from  10  to  14  in  Southern  California,  and  20  to  24  else- 
where. The  stations  reporting  the  smallest  number  of  such  days  were 
Denver,  Dodge  City,  and  Yuma,  2;  Eagle  Pass  and  Cheyenne,  4. 

Cloudy  days. — The  month  has  been  marked  by  extreme  cloudiness 
from  the  Mississippi  Valley  eastward.  The  number  of  such  days  has 
generally  varied  in  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  from  10  to  14;  in  Ten- 
nessee, the  Ohio,  and  Upper  Mississippi  Valleys,  from  14  to  18,  and  in 
the  Lake  region  from  20  to  25.  Regarding  this  the  following  extracts 
from  Signal  Service  observers  are  noted:  Little  Rock,  2d,  "  sun  seen  for 
the  first  time  since  November  23d."  Chicago,  27th,  "sun  first  seen 
since  the  14th."  Detroit,  27th,  "  unbroken  cloudiness  since  the  11th." 
Cleveland,  24th,  "unbroken  cloudiness  since  the  15th."  Springfield,. 
111.,  24th,  "eighth  day  without  sunshine."  Wellsboro,  Pa.,  general 
cloudiness  prevailed  for  26  days — largest  number  reported.  Buffalo,  Os- 
wego, and  Rochester  each  report  25  cloudy  days.  From  Denver  but  one 
and  from  Yuma  but  two  cloudy  day  reported.  On  the  Pacific  slope 
from  San  Francisco  northward,  cloudiness  prevailed  from  20  to  25  days.. 

Bain  or  snow  from  a  cloudless  sky. — Oregon,  Mo.,  12th;  Cincinnati, 
10th;  Burlington,  Vt.,  10th;  Springfield,  111.,  29th;  Bangor,  Me.,  29th. 

Snow  has  fallen  almost  daily  from  the  6th  in  New  England,  the  Lake 
egion,  and  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  and  from  the  18th  in  the  Ohio 
and  Missouri  Valleys  and  the  Middle  States;  on  the  20th,  21st,  26th,  and 
29th,  in  the  South  Atlantic  States;  on  the  19th,  20th,  22d,  28th,  29th, 
and  31st  in  the  Gulf  States;  from  the  2d,  to  5th,  8th,  24th,  28th,  and  29th, 
North  Pacific  region.  The  snow-fall  in  the  Northwest  districts,  though 
frequent,  was  much  lighter  than  usual.  In  the  Atlantic  States  from 
Connecticut  to  the  northern  half  of  North  Carolina  the  snow-falls  were: 
usually  large,  ranging  from  2  to  3  feet.  The  following  special  cases  arc 
noted:  28th,  Green  Springs,  Ala.,  7  inches;  Okalooska,  La.,  1  inch; 
29th,  Forsyth,  Ga.,  heaviest  fall  since  1856;  Atlanta,  "one  of 
the  heaviest  ever  known;"  Mobile:  Montgomery,  "5  inches,  very  re- 
markable, heaviest  ever  known;  "  Columbus,  Ga.,  ^  inches,  "heaviest, 
on  record;"  Augusta,  Ga.,  "  heaviest  fall  since  1857;"  30th,  New  Or- 
leans; El  Paso,  Tex.;  Rockport,  Tex.,  3  inches;  31st,  Brownsville,  Tex.;: 
Fort  Ringgold,  Tex.,  2  inches;  Rio  Grande  City,  1.7  inches,  first  snow/ 
since  December,  1866. 


THE    WEATHER.  297 

RELATl\  i:    BUMIDITT. 

The  relative  humidity,  nol  corrected  for  elevation,  in  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  States,  Tennessee,  fche  .Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  Lower  Missouri 
Valleys  has  generally  ranged  from  70  to  75  per  cent;  in  the  Lake  re- 
gions, from  76  to  83  per  cent;  in  Northern  <  !alifornia,  from  81  to  88  per 
cent;  in  the  Platean  district,  from  56  to  78,  and  Rocky  Mountain  dis- 
tricts, from  In  to  63.  The  following  percentages  are  noted  as  of  inter- 
est: Cheyenne,  49;  Pike's  Peak,  61;  Mount  Washington,  70;  Indianola, 
81;  Cleveland,  Escanaba,  and  Grand  Haven,  83;  Duluth  and  Sacra- 
mento, 88;  Bismarck,  89;  Saint  Vincent,  91,  and  Chincoteague,  93. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  winds  during  December,  1880,  at  Signal  Service 
stations  are  shown  on  the  Chart  by  arrows  which  fly  with  the  wind. 
Northwesterly  winds  have  prevailed  in  New  England,  Tennessee,  the 
Middle  and  Gulf  States,  and  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  westward  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  the  Lake  region  and  the  Ohio  Valley  the 
winds  were  southwesterly.     In  other  districts  they  were  variable. 

Local  storms. — The  following  tornadoes  on  the  4th  were  reported  by 
the  Missouri  wreather  service  and  the  voluntary  observers  of  the  Signal 
Service  in  that  section.  Between  the  hours  of  7  and  8  p.m.,  three  com- 
paratively violent  tornadoes,  pursuing  nearly  parallel  paths  to  the  north- 
eastward, occurred  in  Southwestern  Missouri  in  connection  with  the 
passage  of  low  pressure  area  No.  III.  The  track  of  the  one  farthest 
north  passed  near  the  towns  of  Sarcoxie,  Lawrenceburg,  and  Ash  Grove, 
destroying  five  buildings  and  causing  much  damage  to  other  property. 
The  second  storm,  passing  near  Pierce  City,  visited  the  towns  of  Verona, 
Brookline,  Springfield,  and  Marshfield.  The  third  storm  passed  through 
portions  of  Barry,  Stone,  Christian,  and  Webster  Counties,  visiting 
the  town  of  Ozark.  Several  buildings  were  wrecked  and  considerable 
damage  done. 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Thunder-storms  were  frequent  in  Iowra,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  the 
Ohio  Valley  on  the  4th  and  5th,  and  the  Gulf  States  from  the  16th  to 
the  19th;  elsewhere,  few  or  none  were  reported. 

Atmospheric  electricity  interfering  with  telegraphic  communications. 
— Silver  City,  N.  Mex.,  29th,  Bismarck,  28th,  very  strong  currents  on 
wires  in  all  directions.  Fort  Bennett,  Dak.,  29th,  on  wires  in  all  direc- 
tions. 

Auroras. — The  remarkable  cloudiness  of  the  month  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  prevented  the  display  of  auroras  even  if  they 
had  occurred.  At  Saint  Vincent,  Minn.,  however,  auroras  were  ob- 
served on  eight  out  of  the  eighteen  evenings  on  which  cloudiness  did  not 
prevail. 


THE    WEATHER. 


THE    WEATHER. 


299 


7.  MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,  JANUARY,  1881. 
BARON  ETBIC    PRESSURE. 

The  isobarometric  lines  on  the  Chart  show  the  mean  pressure  for  the 
month  of  January,  1881.  Compared  with  the  chart  of  the  preceding  re- 
view, it  will  be  seen  that  the  area  of  mean  high  barometer  has  advanced 

cast  towards  the  Atlantic  coast,  at  least  within  the  limits  of  the  I'nited 
States,  while  the  area  of  mean  low  barometer  remained  central  in  the 
North  Atlantic.  This  easterly  movement  has  been  more  in  the  form  of 
an  extension  of  the  high  area  of  last  month  towards  the  east,  as  the  cen- 
tre of  greatest  pressure  remains  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  the 
mean  barometer  for  the  month  is  slightly  below  that  of  the  preceding 
month.  The  most  marked  change  in  the  mean  monthly  pressure  oc- 
curred on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  area  of  mean  low  barometer,  central 
in  the  North  Pacific  last  month,  and  including  Washington  Territory 
and  Oregon  in  the  southeastern  quadrant,  with  a  pressure  of  29.88,  has 
been  replaced  by  a  mean  pressure  of  30.08  at  Olympia  and  30.14  at 
Portland,  and  a  general  increase  of  pressure  at  all  stations  on  the  coast. 
Compared  with  January  of  last  year  it  will  be  observed  that  the  distri- 
bution of  pressure  was  strikingly  different  in  the  two  months.  The  pres- 
sure during  January,  1880,  was  greatest  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  with  an 
area  of  low  pressure  near  the  centre  of  the  continent,  and  this  was  accom- 
panied by  the  highest  mean  temperature  observed  for  many  years  at 
northern  stations,  while  the  reverse  obtains  during  the  January  of  1881, 
both  as  regards  pressure  and  temperature. 

Departures  from  normal  values  for  the  month. — The  pressure  has 
generally  averaged  from  0.02  to  0.08  inch  above  the  normal,  except  in 
the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  States,  where  it  has  averaged  from  0.02  to 
0.05  inch  below  the  mean  for  many  years.  The  greatest  departures  are 
observed  on  the  Pacific  coast,  being  at  Olympia  0.16  inch  above.  At 
San  Francisco  and  San  Diego  the  pressure  ranged  from  0.03  to  0.04  inch 
above. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  barometric  range  during  the  month  in- 
creases with  the  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  0.45  inch  at  Key 
West  to  1.42  inches  at  New  York.  From  New  York  northward  the 
range  decreases  to  1.01  at  Portland,  and  1.04  at  Eastport.  Following 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  range  increases  from  0.76  at  New  Orleans  to 
1.33  at  Cario,  and  thence  northward  it  decreases  to  1.14  at  Saint  Paul, 
1.13  at  Saint  Vincent,  and  1.05  at  Duluth.  The  range  increases  witli 
the  latitude  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  0.48  at;  San  Diego,  0.63  at  San 


300  THE   WEATHER. 

Francisco,  1.45  at  Olympia,  and  1.56  at  Umatilla.  The  greatest  ranges 
reported  are:  1.58  at  North  Platte,  1.56  at  Fort  Buford,  1.45  at  San- 
dusky, and  1.49  at  Philadelphia.  The  smallest  are:  0.36  at  Tucson, 
0.45  at  Key  West,  0.52  at  La  Mesilla,  and  0.60  at  Santa  Fe. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Eight  of  these  areas  have  passed  over  the 
districts  east  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  during  the  month,  and  two  ex- 
tended periods  of  high  pressure  occurred  on  the  Pacific  coast;  the  first 
extending  from  the  opening  of  the  month  until  the  storm  of  the  10th, 
and  the  other  from  the  16th  until  the  24th.  High  areas  Nos.  II.,  III., 
and  V.  appear  to  have  formed  east  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  as  a  part  of 
the  permanent  areas  above  referred  to,  previous  to  their  advance  as 
separate  areas  of  high  pressure.  The  course  of  these  areas  over  the 
northern  districts  has  caused  a  marked  increase  in  the  mean  pressure 
for  the  month  in  these  districts.  Generally  they  were  first  observed  in 
the  extreme  Northwest,  or  in  the  Saskatchewan  region,  and  thence 
moved  first  to  the  southeast  and  then  to  the  east,  over  latitudes  north  of 
the  mean  latitude  of  the  centres  of  such  areas. 

Areas  of  low  barometer. — Nine  areas  of  low  barometer  appeared  with- 
in the  limits  of  the  stations  of  the  Signal  Service  during  the  month, 
three  of  which  (Nos.  I.,  III.,  and  V.)  originated  south  of  the  30th  par- 
allel of  latitude.  Three  probably  originated  in  the  North  Pacific  and. 
three  (Nos.  II.,  IV.,  and  IX.)  were  first  observed  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Eocky  Mountains.  No.  IX.  was  preceded  by  violent  storms  and 
heavy  rains  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  reports  from  mountain  stations  in- 
dicate that  a  slight  depression  crossed  the  Eocky  Mountains  south  of 
Salt  Lake  on  the  30th. 

No.  V. — The  gradual  fall  of  the  barometer  over  the  region  of  the 
Gulf,  and  the  heavy  rains  in  Florida  on  the  8th,  indicated  the  develop- 
ment of  a  low  area  in  that  region.  High  winds  were  reported  from  Key 
West  and  Cedar  Keys  on  the  night  of  the  7th,  resulting  from  a  slight 
depression,  which  disappeared  during  the  day,  leaving  the  barometer 
low  over  the  Gulf,  with  conditions  indicating  the  speedy  development 
of  a  severe  storm.  The  centre  of  disturbance  appeared  to  be  in  the  West 
Gulf,  to  the  south  of  Galveston,  during  the  9th,  the  wind  reaching  a 
velocity  of  42  miles  from  the  north  at  lndianola,  and  28  miles  from  the 
northeast  at  Galveston.  Heavy  rain  occurred  at  stations  on  the  Gulf 
coast  during  the  day,  and  by  midnight  rain  or  snow  was  reported  from 
all  districts  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  barometer  fell  rapidly  during 
the  night,  and  the  advance  of  the  high  area  from  the  northwest  was  ac- 
companied by  a  rapid  transfer  of  the  centre  of  disturbance  from  near 
Mobile,  Ala.,  to  the  Middle  Atlantic  coast  during  the  eight  hours  fol- 
lowing the  midnight  report  of  the  9th.  The  pressure  continued  low  in 
the  South  Atlantic  States,  with  variable  winds  on  the  morning  of  the 
10th,  but  during  the  day  the  winds  shifted  to  the  north  and  west,  with. 
a  decided  fall  in  temperature  and  increased  pressure,  and  by  the  morn- 


THE    WEATHER.  801 

ing  of  the  11th  the  centre  moved  to  the  northeast  over  the  New 
England  coast,  causing  violent  northeasterly  gales  and  rery  heavy  rains 
at  stations  located  dearths  track  of  the  centre  of  greatesl  depression. 
The  region  of  snow  extended  from  Texas  northeast  to  New  England, 
where  traina  were  delayed  several  hours  dnring  the  LOth  and  11th. 
Many  observers  located  in  the  northeastern  section  of  the  country  re- 
ported  this  as  the  severest  storm  <>f  the  season.  At  Bellows  Falls,  Vt., 
nearly  three  feel  of  snow  reported.  The  ohserver  at  Portsmouth,  N.H., 
reports  storm  outside  of  harbor  particularly  severe,  large  fleet  of  vessels 
in  harbor.  Toronto  observer  reports  heavy  snow-storm  throughout  On- 
tario. The  British  brig  Eappy  Return  went  ashore  near  Nantucket 
beacon;  total  loss.  A  violent  southeast  storm  occurred  at  Provincetown, 
Mass.,  causing  some  damage  to  shipping  on  the  10th.  Voluntary  ob- 
servers throughout  New  England  report  from  12  to  18  inches  of  snow. 

No.  IX. — This  storm  is  marked  on  the  Chart  as  first  central  in  North- 
ern Texas  at  midnight  of  the  30th,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  passed  from 
the  Pacific  coast,  or  that  its  development  was  due  to  the  heavy  rain  in  that 
region  on  the  previous  day.  The  course  of  the  centre  after  its  first  appear- 
ance was  to  the  northeast  until  the  centre  reached  the  Ohio  Valley  as  a  well- 
defined  storm,  accompanied  by  a  very  heavy  rain  near  the  central  area 
which,  at  that  time,  was  marked  by  a  small  elliptical  isobar  of  29.80 
central  near  Louisville  at  the  11  p.m.  report  of  the  31st.  The  succeed- 
ing reports  show  that  the  direction  of  the  area  changed  slightly  on  the 
following  day,  and  that  it  passed  off  the  South  Atlantic  coast;  causing 
•dangerous  winds  as  far  north  as  Boston. 

TEMPERATURE   OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  January,  1881,  is  shown  by  the 
isothermal  lines  for  the  month  on  the  Chart.  The  average  temperature 
of  the  month  has  been  below  the  normal  in  all  districts  east  of  theRockv 
Mountains,  and  also  in  the  southern  districts  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where 
it  has  averaged  from  1.3°  to  2.5°  below.  The  greatest  departures  oc- 
curred in  Texas,  and  northward  to  British  America,  and  northeastward 
over  the  Lake  region,  where  the  temperature  has  ranged  from  6.5°  to  9.0° 
below  the  normal  of  the  month.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  temperature  has 
averaged  3.5°,  above  the  normal  in  the  central  districts,  about  normal  in 
the  northern  districts,  and  3.5°  above  in  the  region  of  Salt  Lake.  The 
departure  from  the  normal  temperature  has  been  greater  than  during 
the  preceding  month,  which  was  the  coldest,  as  compared  with  records 
of  previous  years,  since  the  establishment  of  the  Signal  Service.  This 
month  has  been  the  coldest  ever  observed  in  the  northern  and  eastern 
districts,  excepting  that  of  January,  1875;  while  in  the  Southern  States, 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  the  only  years  showing  a  lower  temperature  were 
those  of  1872  and  1873.     At  Washington,  D.   C,  the  average  tempera- 


302  THE   WEATHER 

ture  was  lower  than  that  of  any  preceding  January  of  which  this  office 
has  any  reliable  record. 

PRECIPITATION. 

The  distribution  of  rain-fall  for  January,  1881,  is  shown  on  the  Chart, 
as  determined  from  the  regular  Signal  Service  stations  and  about  450  re- 
ports of  army  jDOst  surgeons  and  voluntary  observers.  The  table  on  the 
chart  shows  the  average  precipitation  for  each  district  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  present  month.  An  excess  of  rain  or  snow-fall  has  occurred 
in  the  districts  on  the  Atlantic  and  East  Gulf  coasts,  varying  from  3.80 
inches  in  Florida  to  0.83  inch  in  New  England.  In  the  Middle  and 
North  Pacific  coast  region  the  excess  has  ranged  from  2.61  to  2.16,  while 
the  greatest  deficiency  is  reported  from  the  South  Pacifie  coast  region, 
where  it  amounts  to  1.26  inches.  In  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  Ohio 
Valley  and  the  Lower  Lake  region,  the  amount  rain  and  snow-fall  has 
been  from  one-half  to  one  inch  less  than  the  average  for  the  month,  and 
in  all  other  districts  not  previously  named  there  has  been  a  slight  excess, 
except,  possibly,  the  region  lying  south  of  the  Platte  over  and  north  of 
Texas.  In  this  region  the  stations  are  so  limited  in  number  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  give  full  and  accurate  information,  but  the  indications 
are  that  the  rain-fall  has  been  very  slight  in  this  region. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:  New  England,  7  to  18;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  11  to 
16;  South  Atlantic  States,  10  to  18;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  11  to  16;  West- 
ern Gulf  States,  6  to  13;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  13  to  23;  Lower 
Lake  region,  10  to  24;  Upper  Lake  region,  10  to  20;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  3  to  18;  Missouri  Valley,  8  to  17;  Valley  of  the  Eed  Kiver  of 
the  North,  6  to  11;  Texas,  3  to  13;  Rocky  Mountains,  1  to  12;  Middle 
Plateau,  6  to  18;  Southern  Plateau,  0  to  3;  California,  3  to  11;  Oregon, 
10  to  19;  Washington  Territory,  12  to  19. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varied  in  New  England  from  3  to  lb; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  10  to  16;  South  Atlantic  States,  13  to  20;  East- 
ern Gulf  States,  8  to  21;  Western  Gulf  States,  9  to  16;  Ohio  Valley  and 
Tennessee,  14  to  22;  Lower  Lake  region,  15  to  25;  Upper  Lake  region, 
6  to  18;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  9  to  17;  Missouri  Valley,  7  to  15; 
Valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  4  to  6;  Texas,  2  to  21;  Rocky 
Mountains,  1  to  21;  Middle  Plateau,  10  to  16;  Southern  Plateau,  2  to  5; 
California,  5  to  10;  Oregon,  12  to  19. 

Rain  or  snow  from  a  cloudless  shy. — Leavenworth,  21st ;  Omaha, 
21st,  22d;  Cincinnati,  27th;  Lewiston,  Idaho,  28th;  Burlington,  Vt., 
30th. 

Snow  was  reported  in  the  various  districts  on  the  following  days: 
New  England— 3d  to  12th,  14th,  17th,  18th,  19th,  21st,  22d,  26th  to 
31st.  Middle  States— 1st  to  6th,  9th  to  12th,  14th,  16th,  19th,  21st  to 
31st.     South  Atlantic  States  (except  Southern  Georgia) — 1st  to  3d,  24th, 


Tin;   wkatiii  B. 

85th.  Hast  Gulf  Stales  (exoepl  Florida)— let,  2d,  83d,  84th.  v. 
Gulf  States  (including  Texas)— lsl  to  3d,  5th,  8th  to  11th,  17th,  L9th, 
80th,  88d  to  24th;  at  New  Orleans  4  inches  fell  on  the  24th,  being  the 
greatesl  depth  since  L852,  when  Bleighing  was  indulged  in;  Meli 
Tex.,  "have  had  bo  far  seven  snow-storms  this  winter,  which  is  five 
more  than  has  ever  occurred  iii  any  past  winter,  but  frequently  one 
storm  has  given  a  greater  depth  than  the  combined  storms  of  this 
on."  Tennessee  -1st,  2d,  4th,  5th,  6th,  9th  to  14th,  21st  to  26th. 
Ohio  Valley— 3d  to  19th,  21st  to  31st.  Lowe,-  Lakes— 3d  to  17th,  21st 
to  31st.  Upper  Lakes — 1st  to  16th,  20th  to  31st.  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley — tth  to  9th,  13th  to  16th,  20th  to  31st.  Missouri  Valley— 1st  to 
16th,  20th  to  31st.  Red  River  of  the  North  Valley— 1st,  5th,  7th,  8th, 
9th,  L2th  to  15th,  29th  to  31st.  Rocky  Mountains— 1st  to  17th,  20th 
to  31st.  Southern  Plateau— 2d,  3d,  4th,  6th,  14th,  16th,  17th,  18th, 
20th,  30th.  Middle  Plateau— 1st,  4th  to  11th,  13th  to  16th,  25th,  20th. 
Northern  Plateau— 3d,  4th,  7th,  9th,  10th,  16th,  19th,  26th.  California 
—9th,  10th,  13th,  15th,  16th,  17th,  19th,  25th,  26th.  Oregon  and 
Washington— 2d,  3d,  9th  to  15th,  17th,  24th  to  28th,  31st. 

RELATIVE   HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  New  England,  64  to  75;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  70  to  84; 
South  Atlantic  States,  71  to  85;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  73  to  81;  Western 
1  lulf  States,  64  to  82;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,69  to  80;  Lower  Lake 
region,  66  to  83;  Upper  Lake  region,  68  to  81;. Upper  Mississippi  Valley, 
71  to  77;  Missouri  Valley,  71  to  92;  Valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the 
North,  69  to  93;  Texas,  52  to  77;  Middle  Plateau,  48  to  64;  Southern 
Plateau,  39  to  47:  California,  63  to  82;  Oregon,  78  to  87.  High  stations 
report  the  following  percentages,  not  corrected  for  altitude  :  Mount 
Washington,  74.2;  Pike's  Peak,  69.8;  Denver,  58.5;  Cheyenne,  57.5; 
Eagle  Rock,  77.7;  Santa  Fe,  60.0. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  during  the  month  of  January, 
1881,  is  shown  by  the  arrows  flying  with  the  wind  on  the  Chart.  The 
prevailing  direction  was  northwest  to  north  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  the 
Southern  States,  and  at  stations  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  North  to  east  winds  prevailed  in  California  and  Arizona, 
and  east  to  south  winds  in  the  North  Pacific  coast  region,  and  at  stations 
in  Nevada  and  Idaho.  In  the  Lake  region  the  prevailing  direction  was 
from  northwest  to  southwest,  except  in  the  eastern  portion,  where  it  was 
generally  from  the  south.  The  prevailing  direction  of  wind  at  Pike's 
Peak  and  Denver  was  from  the  southwest  and  south  respectively.  The 
prevailing  direction  on  Mount  Washington  was  northwest. 


'304  THE    WEATHER. 

High  winds. — Winds  of  50  miles  and  above  were  observed  as  follows: 
On  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  1st  to  10th,  12th  to  15th,  17th,  18th, 
20th  to  31st;  the  highest  wind  was  130  miles  S.  on  the  10th  and  N.W. 
on  29th.  On  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  4th,  9th  to  12th,  26th  to  30th, 
with  a  maximum  of  S.W.  88  miles  on  the  28th.  Umatilla,  N.E.  58  on 
the  26th.  Cheyenne,  W.  52,  11th.  North  Platte,  N.  52,  5th.  Fort 
Elliott,  N.W.  52,  5th.  Kittyhawk,  N.  56,  14th.  Delaware  Break- 
water, N.  52,  14th.  Cape  May,  N.W.  56,  27th.  Wood's  Holl,  S.E.  56, 
10th.     Thatcher's  Island,  E.  66,  21st.     New  Shoreham,  N.E.  60,  21st. 

Local  storms. — Santa  Anna  Valley,  Cal.,  21st,  p.m.,  violent  wind- 
storm, destroying  buildings  and  fences,  delaying  trains,  and  prostrating 
telegraph  poles.  Petersburg,  Va.,  19th,  very  heavy  wind-storm;  large 
warehouse  destroyed,  and  other  property  more  or  less  damaged. 

Droughts. — Springfield,  111.,  20th,  wells  and  cisterns  drying  up;  31st, 
river  so  low  that  it  has  become  nearly  stagnant,  and  gives  forth  a  bad 
odor;  farmers  have  been  hauling  water  from  city  for  past  two  weeks; 
drought  has  been  general  and  very  severe  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
State.  Peoria,  111.,  25th,  much  suffering  from  want  of  water.  Holton, 
Kans.,  31st,  month  remarkably  dry.  Lawrence,  Kans.,  31st,  very  dry: 
rain-fall  0. 99  inches  below  the  average  for  the  past  thirteen  years.  Yates 
Centre,  Kans.,  31st,  dryest  within  the  memory  of  the  oldest  settler; 
streams  and  wells  very  low;  stock  driven  three  miles  for  water.  Cres- 
well,  Kans.,  31st,  wells  and  springs  almost  exhausted.  Missouri  weather 
service  reports  a  monthly  rain-fall  at  the  central  station  of  0.39  inches, 
the  smallest  recorded  since  1837;  lowest  previous  rain-fall  was  0.41  inch 
in  1857,  and  only  twice  since  1839  has  the  January  rain-fall  been  less 
than  0.50  inch.  Mendon,  Mass.,  31st,  much  need  of  rain;  wells  and 
cisterns  dry.  Auburn,  N.  H.,  31st,  wells  and  cisterns  dry  in  many 
localities.  Woodstock,  Yt.,  31st,  drought  throughout  month,  and  still 
continues  without  abatement;  but  two  families  in  the  city  have  sufficient 
water  for  household  purposes;  farmers  compelled  to  haul  water  for  stock 
from  long  distances. 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Auroras. — Faint  auroral  displays  were  observed  at  Saint  Yincent, 
Minn,  (the  most  northerly  of  Signal  Service  stations),  on  the  2d,  21st,  22d, 
23d,  24th,  26th,  and  29th.  With  these  exceptions,  no  display  was  ob- 
served outside  New  England  or  south  of  the  42d  parallel  save  that  of 
the  31st. 

Atmospheric  electricity  interfering  with  telegraphic  communication. — 
Accompanying  a  very  severe  snow-storm  of  the  6th,  which  prevailed  over 
a  space  of  about  800  miles  in  width  along  the  line  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Eailroad,  between  Omaha  and  Ogden,  there  was  experienced  a  very  posi- 
tive display  of  electrical  disturbance.     For  twenty-four  hours  the  tele- 


THE    WEATHEE. 


305 


graph  wires  were  rendered  useless,  the  intensity  being  shown  by  the 
foot  that  when  the  telegraph  key  was  opened,  a  steady  electric  Light 
burned  at  the  connecting  points.  According  to  the  records  Kept  by  the 
chief  operator  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  telegraph  line-  there  be  bul  one 
exception  in  the  past  12  years  to  the  regular  yearly  occurrence  of  simi- 
lar storms  between  the  5th  and  7th  of  January.  At  Fort  Apache, 
Ariz.,  on  the  lGtli,  wires  could  not  be  worked  for  a  considerable  time. 

AMKRICAN    STORMS    ADVANCING    IN    A    SOUTHEASTERLY    DIRECTION.' 

Contributions  l,i  Meteorology,  being  Results  derived  from  an  Examina- 
tion of  the  Observations  of  the  United  States  Si<jit<il  Service,  and  from 
oilier  Sources  ;  by  Alias   Loomis,  Professor  of  Nat.  Phil,  in  Yale 
College. 
During  the  colder  months  of  the  years,  storms  while  crossing  the 
United  States  frequently  advance,  during  a  portion  of  their  course,  in  a 
direction  from  northwest  to  southeast.     This  direction  is  not  confined 
to  any  particular  section  of  the  country,  but  occurs  most  frequently  in 
the  region   between  the  Eocky  Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River. 
This  course  is  seldom  maintained,  as  far  south  as  the  parallel  of  30°,  and 
after  reaching  its  most  southerly  point,  the  storm  frequently  changes 
its  course  towards  the  northeast.     The  following  table  shows  those  cases 
in  which  storms  have  advanced  towards  the  southeast  as  far  as  the  par- 
allel of  28°.     The  first  six  columns  describe  each  storm  as  long  as  its 
course  continued  southeasterly;  the  last  column  gives  some  indication  of 
the  subsequent  course  of  each  storm. 


No. 


Date. 


1874. 

1875. 
187G. 


1877. 


1878. 


1879. 


Feb. 

Apr. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mch. 

May 

Jan. 

Mch. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Feb. 

Aug. 

Nov. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

May 


17.2-18.2.. 

15.3-16.3.. 

15.1-16.2.. 

3.4.1.. 

6.2-12.1.. 

6.3-  7.3.. 

4.2-  5.3.. 
21.2—24.1.. 
19*  -20'  .'" 
22    -27.2.. 

1.1-  2.3.. 
20.2-24.2. . 
16.2-17.2.. 

6.3-  7.3.. 
8.3-11.1.. 
4.1-  6.1.. 


Latitude, 
beg.  end. 


Longitude, 
beg.  end. 


33-27 
41-26 
44-27 
33-28 
47-27 
33-27 
46-?  8 
42-28 
44-28 
47  27 
33-26 
38-22 
28-24 
38-17 
49-27 
34-24 


86-79 
101-89 
106-91 

98-80 
127-89 
100-93 
100-90 
100-95 
102-98 
103-95 

96-84 

8:3-81 
102-93 
110-98 
119-98 
101-96 


Course 


S.E. 

S.E. 

S.E. 

S.E. 

S.E. 

S.E. 
S.S.E. 
S.S.E. 

S.E. 

S.E. 

S.E. 
S.S.E. 
S.S.E. 

S.E. 

S.E. 
S.S.E. 


Vet. 
miles 


21.8 
21.1 
27.1 
28.4 
15.7 
25.0 
40.4 
22.5 
10.0 
29.7 
18.3 
15.1 
24.0 
39.2 
30.4 
16.1 


Subsequent 
course-. 


Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 

NE. 

N.E. 

N. 

N.E. 

N.E. 

Became  extinct. 

N.E. 

N.E. 

N.E. 

Became  extinct. 


We  see  from  this  table  that  the  average  velocity  of  these  storms  while 

pursuing  their  course  toward  the  southeast,  was  twenty-four  miles  per 

hour,  which  differs  but  little  from  the  average  velocity  of  storms  in  other 

1  Read  before  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  New  York,  Nov.  18th,  1881. 


306  THE   WEATHER. 

parts  of  the  United  States.  The  lowest  latitude  attained  by  any  of  these 
storms  was  22£  degrees;  and  in  only  three  cases  did  the  low  centre  reach 
the  parallel  of  25  degrees.  In  eight  cases  the  storm  centre,  after  com- 
pleting its  course  towards  the  southeast,  changed  its  course  and  pro- 
ceeded towards  the  north  or  northeast.  In  two  of  the  remaining  cases 
the  intensity  of  the  storm  declined  in  advancing  southward,  and  they  ap- 
parently became  extinct  soon  after  the  dates  given  in  the  table.  The  same 
was  probably  true  in  the  six  remaining  cases,  but  the  observations  are 
not  sufficient  to  establish  this  with  certainty. 

Storm  No.  12  was  quite  peculiar,  having  pursued  a  path  almost  di- 
rectly opposite  to  that  of  ordinary  storms.  During  the  afternoon  of 
August  20th,  1878,  there  was  an  area  of  low  pressure  (29.75)  over  West 
Virginia,  being  part  of  a  greater  depression  whose  centre  was  over  New- 
foundland, and  there  was  a  slight  tendency  to  the  formation  of  an  inde- 
pendent system  of  circulating  winds.  Owing  to  a  slight  increase  of 
pressure  on  the  north  side,  this  low  area  was  crowded  southward,  and 
in  the  afternoon  of  August  21st  assumed  the  character  of  an  indepen- 
dent low  area  (29.78)  with  a  feeble  system  of  circulating  winds.  At 
7.35  a.m.,  August  22d,  this  low  centre  had  been  crowded  south  to  lati- 
tude 30°,  the  greatest  observed  depression  being  now  29.88.  After  this 
the  pressure  increased,  and  the  low  centre  could  not  be  distinctly  traced. 
This  example  appears  to  illustrate  the  general  character  of  areas  of  low 
pressure,  and  shows  that  their  progressive  movement  is  not  due  to  a 
simple  drifting  of  the  atmosphere,  but  rather  to  a  diminution  of  pressure 
on  one  side  of  the  low  area  and  an  increase  of  pressixre  on  the  other  side. 
In  the  present  case  there  was  scarcely  an  appreciable  diminution  of 
pressure  on  the  south  side,  and  only  a  slight  increase  of  pressure  on  the 
north  side. 

American  storms  advancing  northerly  and  easterly. — The  storms 
which  cross  the  United  States  north  of  parallel  38°,  generally  pursue  a 
course  a  little  to  the  north  of  east;  while  those  which  come  from  the 
region  south  of  latitude  38°  generally  pursue  a  course  nearly  northeast 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  During  the  summer 
months  few  storm-centres  travel  south  of  the  parallel  of  38°,  and  during 
this  period  the  average  course  of  storms  is  almost  exactly  towards  the  east. 

The  following  table  shows  those  cases  in  which  storms  have  travelled 
northward  and  eastward,  and  came  from  a  point  as  far  south  as  latitude 
26\  The  arrangement  of  the  table  is  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding. 
Columns  3  and  4  show  the  position  of  the  storm-centre  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  northeasterly  motion,  as  far  as  indicated  by  the  obser- 
vations; column  7  shows  the  lowest  pressure  reported,  and  column  8 
gives  a  brief  indication  of  the  previous  course  of  the  storm. 

We  see  from  this  table  that  storms  of  this  class  occur  most  frequently 
in  the  autumn,  and  least  frequently  in  summer.  One  of  these  storms  be- 
gan near  latitude  20°;  and  seventeen  of  them  began  south  of  latitude  24°. 


THE    WEATHER. 


307 


4JT3 

•d 

v. 

Datt 

i. 

•a  = 

It 

tig 

h 

Course. 

Vel. 
miles. 

barom 

Previous  course. 

1 

1878.     Nov. 

6.1-  7.3 

86-47 

95  66 

E.N.E. 

60.4 

29.71 

Unknown. 

8 

Nov. 

7.;:-  9.8 

25-80 

95  78 

E.N.E. 

21.1 

29.74 

Unknown. 

3 

Dec. 

9.2   13.3 

26-47 

101-57 

N.E. 

28.6 

29.86 

Unknown. 

4 

Dec. 

28.2  87.2 

86   II 

95-58 

N.E. 

29.8 

29.17 

Unknown. 

r. 

1873.     Feb. 

19.1-22.1 

21-45 

98-64 

N.E. 

35.1 

29.17 

Unknown. 

(i 

May- 

4.1-10.1 

24-43 

lis  si 

N.E. 

15.8 

29.57 

Unknown. 

- 
• 

Sept. 

18.1-20.1 

24-34 

92-94 

N.E. 

24.8 

30  57 

Unknown. 

s 

Sept. 

22.3-24.1 

2r,-:;r, 

86-72 

N.E. 

28.5 

29.78 

Unknown. 

'.» 

Oct. 

5.1-  8.2 

25-43 

sT  c-j 

N.E. 

52.9 

29.02 

Towards  N.W. 

in 

Dec. 

24.2  27.1 

84-43 

88-62 

N.E. 

30.4 

29.87 

Unknown. 

U 

1874.     Jan. 

5.2-  9.1 

85-49 

87-68 

N.N.E. 

18.0 

29.42 

Unknown. 

12 

Feb. 

7.2-11.1 

2")-46 

82-58 

N.N.E. 

25.0 

28.95 

Towards  N.W. 

i:: 

April 

17.3-24.1 

24-46 

94-59 

N\  &  N.E. 

29.7 

29.36 

Unknown. 

i) 

Sept. 

2.3-10.2 

22-50 

99-89 

North. 

21.5 

29.47 

Unknown. 

lr. 

Sept. 

27.1-30.2 

25-59 

87-66 

N.N.E. 

26.0 

28.94 

Unknown. 

n; 

Dec. 

18.2-21.1 

25-39 

96-62 

N.E. 

34.6 

29.33 

Unknown. 

i; 

1875.     Nov. 

6.1-  7.3 

25-31 

98-78 

E.N.E. 

32.9 

30.82 

Unknown. 

is 

1876.     Oct. 

19.1-21.1 

21-32 

82-72 

E.N.E. 

19.5 

29.51 

Not  traceable. 

19 

1877.      Sept. 

16.1-21.3 

25-31 

96-76 

E.N.E. 

10.7 

29.40 

Unknown. 

2o 

187S.      Jan. 

6.1-12.2 

24-46 

100-56 

N.E. 

26.4 

28.85 

Not  traceable. 

21 

Feb. 

26.2-28.1 

24-30 

92-71 

E.N.E. 

81.1 

29.71 

Came  from  N.W. 

.).> 

Men. 

17.1-17.2 

23-25 

85-78 

E.N.E. 

? 

29.79 

Not  traceable. 

23 

Men. 

19.3-22.3 

25-27 

95-78 

East. 

15.0 

29.71 

Came  from  W. 

•J! 

July- 

2.1-  2.3 

25-27 

85-78 

E.N.E. 

22.6 

29.77 

Not  traceable. 

•J.', 

Sept. 

24    -33 

15-32 

76-61 

N.  &  N.E. 

10.1 

29.70 

Not  traceable. 

26 

Oct. 

21.1-24.2 

20-38 

81-57 

N.  &E. 

27.5 

28.83 

Not  traceable. 

•j  7 

Nov. 

13.3-20.1 

22-44 

97-57 

E.  &  N.E. 

24.5 

29.83 

Not  traceable. 

is 

Nov. 

17.2-21.1 

24-47 

93-57 

N.E. 

40.3 

29.47 

Came  from  N.W. 

•ji» 

1879.     Nov. 

19.1-20.3 

23-49 

74-60 

N.N.E. 

48.8 

29.00 

Not  traceable. 

80 

1880.     Jan. 

24    -28.1 

21-36 

86-75 

North. 

14.3 

29.68 

Not  traceable. 

31 

Mch. 

7.3-  9.2 

26-32 

99-74 

E.N.E. 

38.0 

29.86 

Not  traceable. 

32 

May 

3.1-  6.2 

26^7 

93-59 

N.E. 

23.8 

29.79 

Unknown. 

3:5 

Aug. 

19   -20 

20-27 

78-74 

N.N.E. 

12.4 

29.86 

Towards  N.W. 

THE    WEATHER. 


ill  I :    w  i   \  i  in  i:. 


8.  MONTHLY   WKATIIER    REVIEW,    FEBRUARY,    1881. 
B  LBOMETBIO    PRE88UBB. 

The  mean  pressure  of  the  air  over  the  United  States  and  Canada  for 
the  month  of  February,  L881,  la  shown  by  isobars  on  the  Chart.  The 
eastward  movement  of  the  area  of  high  barometer  (noted  in  the  last 
month's  review)  has  been  still  more  marked  during  the  present  month,  the 
region  of  maximum  pressures  having  been  transferred  from  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  to  the  Atlantic  States,  while  the  area  of  lowest  barometer 
occupies  the  region  covered  by  the  maximum  pressures  of  December, 
1880.  A  glance  at  the  Chart  at  once  reveals  the  effect  of  this  redistri- 
bution of  pressure  upon  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  in  the  Gulf 
States,  Tennessee,  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  Lake  region.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  the  highest  pressures  are  over  California,  and  the  northerly  winds 
along  the  coast  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  region  of  maximum 
barometer  is  over  the  ocean. 

Departures  from  the  normal  values  for  the  month. — The  region  of 
greatest  departure  from  the  normal  covers  Northeastern  New  York, 
Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire,  being  +0.15  at  Albany  and  Mount 
Washington,  and  +0.16  at  Burlington;  along  the  New  England  coast  it 
averages  about  +  0.13,  while  the  line  of  +  0.10  runs  from  Cape  May 
northwestward  to  Lake  Superior.  From  this  line  of  +0.10,  in  a  south- 
westerly direction,  it  gradually  decreases  toward  the  line  of  no  depar- 
ture, which  runs  through  Florida.  Georgia,  Northern  Alabama,  Tennes- 
see, and  Missouri.  At  Indianola  the  departure  is  —0.06  and  at  New 
Orleans  —0.03.  On  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
the  departures  are  zero  or  quite  small. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  range  of  pressure  during  the  month  has 
varied  in  the  extremes  from  0.36  inch  at  Key  West  to  1.72  inches  at 
Burlington,  Vt.  Ranges  of  1.00  and  above  were  reported  from  stations 
in  Washington  Territory,  Montana,  and  Dakota,  then  southward  to 
Brownsville,  Tex.,  and  northeastward  over  the  remaining  sections  of  the 
country  to  the  Atlantic  coast  (except  the  East  Gulf  States),  with  but  the 
variance  of  a  single  station,  viz.,  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  0.06.  Throughout 
the  territory  included  between  the  parallels  of  30°  and  -47"  and  west  of 
the  102d  meridian,  the  range  varies  from  0.33  at  San  Diego  to  0.95  at 
Umatilla.  Along  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  the  range  in- 
creases with  the  latitude;  along  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United 
States  the  range  increases  quite  rapidly  from  both  California  and  Florida 
inward  to  the  maximum  in  Lower  Texas.     The  smallest  ranges  occur  at 


310  THE   WEATHEE. 

the  southern  stations — Key  "West  and  San  Diego;  the  largest  in  the 
Upper  Lake  region  and  New  England. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Seven  of  these  have  heen  sufficiently 
marked  to  merit  a  brief  description.  The  most  remarkable  was  No.  L, 
which  occupied,  in  the  last  days  of  January,  the  Lake  region,  and  con- 
tinued in  the  same  district  until  the  7th.  It  is,  perhaps,  due  to  this 
high  area  that  the  barometer  for  the  month  is  generally  above  the  mean 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  temperature  below  the  mean  for 
the  same  period.  High  areas  Nos.  IV.  and  V.  should,  for  the  Pacific 
coast,  be  regarded  as  a  single  high  pressure.  As  usual,  all  the  minimum 
temperatures  of  the  month  are  associated  with  the  high  barometers. 

No.  V. — The  barometer  remained  above  the  mean  on  the  Pacific 
coast  on  the  18th  and  19th,  although  the  area  of  the  highest  pressure 
had  to  be  transferred  to  Texas.  On  the  20th  a  slight  rise  took  place 
in  California,  the  barometer  reading  30.4  at  Red  Bluff  and  at  Sacra- 
mento. On  the  21st  the  highest  area  moved  eastward  over  the  Northern 
Plateau.  Maximum  readings  were  reported  at  Roseburg  of  30.48,  or 
0.41  above  the  normal,  and  at  Boise  City  of  30.5  or  0.43  above  the  nor- 
mal. On  the  22d  from  "Washington  Territory  to  Dakota  the  barometer 
averaged  more  than  0.3  above  the  normal.  On  the  23d  the  area  of  high- 
est pressure  was  rapidly  transferred  to  the  Northwest  and  thence  to  the 
Upper  Lake  region.  On  the  24th,  with  diminishing  pressure,  this  high 
barometer  disappeared  in  advance  of  low  area  No.  IX.  During  the 
continuance  of  Nos.  IV.  and  V.  on  the  Pacific  coast  no  rain  fell  from 
the  afternoon  of  the  18th  until  the  25th  in  California,  Nevada,  Utah, 
and  Arizona. 

Areas  of  low  barometer. — Ten  such  areas  have  had  their  tracks 
charted  for  the  month  of  February,  1881.  Of  these,  two — Nos.  III.  and 
IV. — appear  to  have  been  developed  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  One  only 
— No.  II. — with  a  defined  track  within  the  limits  of  the  chart  crossed 
the  Rocky  Mountains  from  the  Pacific  coast,  and  this  disappeared  in  the 
Lower  Missouri  during  the  regime  of  high  area  No.  I.  in  the  Lake 
region.  Four — Nos.  VII. ,  VIII. ,  IX.,  and  X. — have  their  tracks  first 
charted  in  the  Northwest.  Special  attention  is  invited  to  the  tracks  of 
low  areas  Nos.  III.  and  IV.,  which  are  abnormal;  a  comparison  made 
with  the  charts  of  the  storm  tracks  for  the  month  of  February  in  pre- 
vious years  shows  that  not  since  the  establishment  of  the  Weather  Ser- 
vice have  any  storms  pursued  for  this  month  so  northerly  a  course. 
These  storms  were  both  severe,  No.  IV.  being  in  some  respects  the  most 
violent  of  the  month.  The  great  floods  of  February  were  all  due  to 
these  two  storms.  The  closest  comparison  is  in  February,  1874,  when 
several  low  area3  developing  in  the  Southwest  moved  in  a  northeasterly 
track  over  the  United  States,  but,  as  before  stated,  this  office  has  no 
record  of  any  storm  tracks  for  February  which  pursued  a  course  so 
nearlv  to   the  north.     The  maximum  temperatures  of  the  month  are 


i iii,  w  i  Mm  i:.  :;i  l 

generally  associated  with  the  progress  <>f  storm  centre  N  ».  X.  across  the 
country. 

No.  IH.  —  For  several  days  before  the  8th  the  barometer  had  been 
below  tin'  mean  in  the  southwest,  but  with  mo  well-defined  centre  of 
depression.  Od  this  day  the  greatest  fall  was  at  New  Orleans,  where, 
at  the  midnight  observation,  the  barometer  was  29.61,  or  0.52  below 
the  normal.  On  the  9th  tin'  centre  of  low  area  moved  in  a  northerly 
direction  into  [ndiana,  the  barometer  at  Indianoplis,  29.28,  being  0.72 
below  the  normal.  On  the  loth  the  centre  of  low  area  pursued  its  track 
to  the  north,  bu1  during  the  day  there  was  a  greal  Call  in  pressure  over 
thr  Lower  Lakes,  Middle  States,  and  New  England.  Very  heavy  rain, 
with  consequent  floods,  was  reported  from  the  Southern  States  and  the 
Ohio  Valley.  Cautionary  signals  for  this  storm  were  ordered  on  the 
8th  from  Mobile  to  Cedar  Keys,  on  the  9th  from.  Jacksonville  to  Wil- 
mington, and  from  Kittyhawk  to  Sandy  Hook;  these  were  generally 
justified  by  the  following  velocities:  Mobile,  28  S.W. ;  Pensacola,  28 
S.W.;  Cedar  Keys,  25  E.;  Smithville,  28  S.E.;  Kittyhawk,  32  S.; 
Chincoteague,  36  S.E.;  Delaware  Breakwater,  42  S. ;  Cape  May,  39 
S.E.  Cautionary  signals  were  ordered  for  Lake  Michigan  on  the  9th? 
and  were  justified  by  the  following  velocities:  Grand  Haven,  32  X.  W. ; 
Milwaukee,  45  N.E. 

No.  IV. — After  the  passage  of  low  area  No.  III.  there  was  a  sharp 
rise  in  pressure  over  the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley,  while  along  the  lii'> 
Grande  the  barometer  continued  very  low.  On  the  10th  the  pressure  in 
the  Gulf  began  to  yield  in  advance  of  low  area  No.  IV.,  which  was  a 
secondary  development  in  the  Gulf  of  low  area  No.  III.;  its  centre  at 
the  midnight  report  of  the  10th  was  located  in  Western  Louisiana.  On 
the  11th,  pursuing  a  track  nearly  parallel  to  No.  III.,  its  centre  ad- 
vanced into  Illinois  and  Indiana,  where  the  barometer  was  in  genera 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  below  the  mean.  On  the  12th,  still  continuing 
its  northerly  direction,  the  centre  of  low  barometer  was  at  the  afternoon 
observation  near  Alpena,  where  the  pressure  of  29.22  was  0.9  below  the 
normal;  the  depression  then  changed  its  path  to  the  eastward,  traversing 
on  the  13th  the  Saint  Lawrence  Valley  and  New  England.  The  heavi- 
est rains  accompanying  this  storm  occurred  in  New  England.  High 
"northeast  gales,  with  heavy  snow,  were  reported  from  the  Northwest  and 
CTpper  Lakes,  and  after  the  passage  of  the  centre  of  depression  in  the  Ohio 
Valley  and  Lower  Lakes  a  great  fall  occurred  in  temperature,  accompanied 
by  light  snow  and  followed  by  clearing  weather.  Cautionary  signals  for 
this  storm  were  ordered  on  the  10th  from  New  Orleans  to  Pensacola.  on 
the  11th  from  Smithville,  N.  C,  to  Thatcher's  Island,  and  on  the  12th 
at  Portland  and  Eastport.  The  signals  on  Lake  Michigan  were  con- 
tinued from  the  previous  storm.  These  signals  were  generally  justified 
by  the  following  maximum  velocities:  New  Orleans,  28  X.W. ;  Mobile, 
88   S.W.;    Pensacola,  31  S.W.;    Smithville,  34  S.W.;    Wilmington,  30 


312  THE    WEATHEE. 

S.W.;  Macon,  33  S.W.;  Hatteras,  40  W.;  Kittyhawk,  42  S.;  Cape- 
Henry,  32  S.W.;  Norfolk,  33  S.W.;  Chincoteague,  40  S.E.;  Delaware 
Breakwater,  58  S. ;  Cape  May,  50  S. ;  Barnegat,  36  S. ;  Sandy  Hook,  28 
W.;  New  York,  32  S.E.;  New  London,  32  S.E.;  New  Shoreham,  40 
W. ;  Newport,  39  W. ;  Wood's  Holl,  48  W. ;  Boston,  35  W. ;  Thatcher's 
Island,  40  N.E.;  Portland,  33  E.;  Eastport,  40  S.E.  On  the  12th  the 
cautionary  signals  were  changed  to  cautionary  off-shore  signals  from 
Smithville  to  Thatcher's  Island,  and  were  generally  justified,  both  as  to 
direction  and  as  to  velocity. 

TEMPEEATUEE    OF   THE   AIE. 

Temperature  of  the  air. — The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1881,  is  shown  by  the  isothermal  lines  on  the  Chart.  Throughout 
the  whole  country  of  the  east  of  the  107th  meridian,  includ'  .g  the  north- 
ern Rocky  Mountain  slope,  but  excluding  New  England  and  the  Florida 
peninsula,  the  temperature  has  been  below  the  normal.  In  the  two 
latter  districts  and  in  the  Northern  Plateau  region  it  has  experienced  no 
change,  while  to  the  westward  in  the  remaining  districts  the  tempera- 
ture has  risen  above  the  normal.  The  following  large  abnormal  de- 
viations may  be  noted:  Fort  Bennett,  —14.7°;  Omaha,  —9.7°;  Dodge 
City,  -  9.0°;  Leavenworth,  -  7.9°;  Yankton,  -  7.2°;  North  Platte, 
—  6".8°;  Fort  Gibson,  -6.6°;  Fort  Sill,  -6.2°;  La  Crosse,  -4.5° 

PEECIPITATION. 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall  (including  melted  snow)  for  Feb- 
ruary, 1881,  is  shown  on  the  Chart  from  the  reports  of  over  500  stations. 

The  regions  of  greatest  rain-fall  are  to  be  found  along  the  Pacific  coast 
north  of  parallel  40°,  in  Northern  Texas,  Northern  Illinois,  in  the 
Western  Gulf  States,  and  Western  North  Carolina.  The  region  of  no 
precipitation,  covering  a  territory  of  about  200  miles  square,  embraces  a 
portion  of  Southeastern  California  and  Southwestern  Arizona.  As  com- 
pared with  the  mean  of  past  years,  the  rain-fall  for  the  month  is  in  gen- 
eral considerably  above  the  average.  The  most  marked  departures 
occurred  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  Pacific  coast  regions,  Lower  Mis- 
souri Valley,  Upper  Lake  region,  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  in  the 
central  portion  of  the  Western  Gulf  States.  Departures  of  excess  at 
particular  stations  were  most  marked  in  these  districts.  In  Southern 
Florida,  Southern  Dakota,  and  along  the  California  coast  south  of 
parallel  40°,  individual  deficiencies  were  quite  prominent.  The  rain- 
fall of  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Plateau  districts,  nearly  always  com- 
paratively low,  was  quite  evenly  distributed,  except  in  a  narrow  region 
extending  northward  from  Salt  Lake  City. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:    New  England,  9   to  18;  Middle   States,    10  to  15; 


THE    wi  Ainu:.  318 

South  Atlantic  States,  7  to  L2j  Eastern  Gull  States,  6  fco  L2;  West- 
ern Gall  States,  10  to  L2;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  L2to  30;  Lower 
Lake  region,  15  to  22;  CTpper  Lake  region,  ilt<>2<);  l ' ppt-r  Mississippi 
Valley,  i<»  to  18;  Missouri  Valley,  1 1  bo  L6;  Valley  of  the  Bed  Rivei  oi  the 
North,  L2  to  L9;  Texas,  1  to  9;  Hooky  Mountains,  2  to  LOj  Middle  Pla- 
teau, 3  to  1G;  Southern  Plateau,  <>  to  5;  California,  3  to  14;  Oregon, 
6  to  14;  Washington  Territory,  7  to  19. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varied  in  New  England  from  2  to  L3; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  3  to  13;  South  Atlantic  States,  5  to  13;  Eastern 
Gulf  States,  2  to  12;  "Western  Gulf  States,  8  to  12;  Ohio  Valley  and 
Tennessee,  10  tolG;  Lower  Lake  region,  12  to  19;  Upper  Lake  region,  11 
to  10;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  12  to  15;  Missouri  Valley,  9  to  L2; 
Valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  10  to  12;  Texas,  1  to  10;  Rocky 
Mountains,  3  to  15;  Middle  Plateau,  8  to  19;  Southern  Plateau,  Oto  5; 
California,  2  to  12. 

Rain  or  snow  from  a  cloudless  sky. — Colorado  Springs,  Colo.,  17th. 

Snoiv. — No  precipitation  of  this  nature  was  reported  from  the 
country  to  the  south  and  east  of  the  35th  parallel  and  the  104th  meri- 
dian respectively,  except  in  extreme  Northern  Texas  on  the  11th  and 
15th,  and  the  extreme  western  portion  on  the  Gth  and  10th.  In  California 
none  was  reported  except  along  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  northeast  of 
Los  Angeles  and  east  of  Sacramento.  In  the  various  other  districts  snow 
fell  on  the  following  dates:  New  England,  1st  to  5th,  11th  to  28th;  Mid- 
dle States,  1st,  2d,  13th  to  25th;  Western  North  Carolina,  3d,  12th, 
13th;  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  1st  to  5th,  12th  to  28th;  Lower 
Lake  region,  1st  to  5th,  8th,  9th,  12th  to  28th;  Upper  Lake  region,  1st 
to  28th;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  1st  to  28th;  Missouri  Valley,  1st,  2d, 
4th  to  28th;  Indian  Territory,  10th,  11th,  15th.  18th,  20th;  Rocky 
Mountains,  from  Southern  New  Mexico  to  Northern  Montana,  1st  to 
28th;  Arizona  (central  part),  9th,  17th,  18th;  Middle  Plateau,  5th,  7th 
to  18th,  25th,  26th;  Northern  Plateau,  1st,  2d,  8th  to  16th,  18th,  20th, 
2 Gth,  27th;  Northern  Pacific  coast  region,  8th,  12th  to  18th,  26th  to 
28th. 

Largest  monthly  snoiv-falls. — Mount  "Washington,  56  inches;  Beloit, 
"Wis.,  42;  Little  Mountain,  Ohio,  38;  Cisco,  Cal.,  33;  Sterling,  111.,  32; 
Rockford,  111.,  31.5;  Geneseo,  111.,  30;  Elmira,  111.,  and  North  Volney, 
N.  Y.,  29;  Coldwater,  Mich.,  28;  Friendship,  N.  Y.,  and  Olivet,  Dak., 
26;  Bloomfield,  "Wis.,  Marshall,  Mich.,  and  Cleveland,  25;  Belvidere, 
111.,  and  Corning,  Mo.,  24.5;  Neillsville,  "Wis.,  Niles  and  Northport, 
Mich.,  23;  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  and  Pierce  City,  Mo.,  22;  Deer  Park, 
Md.,  21. 

The  following  items  regarding  the  remarkably  severe  snow-storms  of 
the  month  will  be  found  of  interest:  Dakota :  Fort  Bennett,  12th,  snow- 
fall unprecedented;  cattle  suffering  dreadfully;  travel  of  all  kinds  almost 
impossible  throughout  month.     Yankton,  7th,  heavy  blockade;  business 


314  THE   WEATHER. 

almost  suspended;  great  sufferings  among  people  in  interior  towns  for 
want  of  food  and  fuel;  25th,  all  roads  again  blockaded.  Illinois :  Mor- 
rison, month  characterized  by  an  unusual  fall  of  snow  and  consequent 
heavy  blockades.  Iowa  :  Nora  Springs,  4th  to  7th,  worst  snow  blockade 
experienced  in  this  section  for  past  15  years.  Logan,  5th,  6th,  ter- 
rible snow-storm,  worst  in  20  years.  Burlington,  12th,  18th,  all  roads 
blockaded;  heaviest  for  many  years.  Keokuk,  12th,  14th,  railroads 
blockaded;  much  damage  to  property.  Dubuque,  7th  to  13th,  telegraph 
wires  down  in  all  directions;  streets  impassable;  all  travel  ceased;  the 
worst  blockade  for  many  years.  Kansas:  Creswell,  11th,  snow  blockade 
most  severe  for  10  years;  travel  of  all  kinds  impossible.  Wellington,  10th, 
11th,  heaviest  snow-storm  ever  experienced.  Dodge  City,  11th,  very 
severe  blizzard;  stopping  travel  of  all  kinds;  cattle  suffering  severely; 
14th,  trains  blackaded;  all  travel  ceased;  thousands  of-  starving  and 
freezing  cattle  found  along  the  railroad;  large  herd  of  antelopes  forced 
into  town  in  search  of  food.  Leavenworth,  11th,  heaviest  snow  storm 
for  many  years;  streets  impassable.  Michigan :  Northport,  27th,  16 
inches  fell  and  drifted  terribly;  travel  impossible;  worst  ever  experienced. 
Marquette,  12th  to  28th,  heaviest  storm  for  years;  telegraph  lines  all 
down;  blockade  still  continuing.  Minnesota :  New  Ulm,  27th,  heaviest 
snow  blockade  ever  experienced;  hundreds  of  families  suffering  for  want 
of  food  and  fuel;  travel  impossible.  Saint  Paul,  1st  to  16th,  one  con- 
tinuous and  uninterrupted  blockade;  much  damage  and  suffering;  violent 
blizzards.  Nebraska :  North  Platte,  14th,  heaviest  storm  for  years;  cattle 
dying  from  cold  and  starvation.  Omaha,  6th,  most  violent  storm  for 
many  years;  telegraph  wires  all  down;  trains  blockaded;  all  travel 
ceased;  much  damage  to  buildings;  12th,  all  railroad  travel  blockaded 
by  heavy  drifts.  New  York:  3d,  railroads  on  Long  Island  blockaded; 
storm  very  violent.  Ohio  :  Sandusky,  1st,  trains  blockaded  and  busi- 
ness entirely  suspended  for  the  day.  Wisconsin  :  Embarrass,  27th,  worst 
snow  blockade  ever  experienced;  no  mail;  no  trains;  no  travel  of  any 
kind.  La  Crosse,  7th  to  17th,  all  communication  seriously  obstructed; 
heaviest  storm  for  many  years;  great  suffering  and  much  loss  to  property. 
Snoiv  on  ground  at  end  of  month. — North  of  the  37th  parallel  the  fol- 
lowing depths  in  inches  were  reported  in  the  various  States  and  Terri- 
tories :  Maine,  3  to  18;  New  Hampshire,  8  to  24;  Vermont,  lto  20;  Mas- 
sachusetts, 3  to  18;  Connecticut  and  Ehode  Island,  trace  to  2;  New 
York,  trace  to  22;  New  Jersey,  trace  to  28;  Pennsylvania,  5  to  16;  West 
Virginia,  trace  to  3;  Ohio  ^to  25;  Indiana,  trace  to  4;  Michigan,  lower 
peninsula,  3  to  48;  upper  peninsula,  12  to  36;  Illinois,  1  to  18;  Wiscon- 
sin, 16  to  38;  Missouri,  trace  to  5;  Iowa,  i  to  26;  Minnesota,  24  to  36; 
Kansas,  drifts;  Nebraska,  trace  to  12;  Dakota,  3  to  33;  Colorado,  only 
2  inches  on  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  trace  to  12  in  lower  surrounding 
•country;  Montana,  2  to  22;  Wyoming,  trace  to  12;  California,  on  moun- 
tain ranges. 


% 


THE    ui.aiiii.i:.  315 


l;i  I.  VTIVK    III   Ml  DITY. 


Tln>  prrcentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  NVw  England,  65  to  78;  Middle  States,  66  to  84;  South  Atlantic 
States,  58  to  81;  Eastern  Gull  States,  51  to  75;  Western  Gulf  States,  62 
to  79;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  64  to  74;  Lower  Lake  region,  72  to 
79.  Cpper  Lake  region,  66  to  83;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  71  to  78; 
Missouri  Valley,  66  to  87;  Valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  75  to 
91;  Texas,  61  to  72;  Middle  Plateau,  43  to  74;  Southern  Plateau,  30  to 
17;  California,  02  to  82;  Oregon,  80  to  82.  High  stations  report  the 
following  percentages  not  corrected  for  altitude:  Mount  Washington, 
78.9;  Pike's  Peak,  02. 3;  Denver,  50.0;  Cheyenne,  50.4;  Eagle  Rock, 
78.5;  Santa  Fe,  50.8. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  winds  during  the  month  of  February,  1881,  at  Signal 
Service  stations  are  shown  on  the  Chart  by  arrows  which  fly  with  the 
wind.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  Maine  to  North  Carolina,  in  the 
interior  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  throughout  the  Upper  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  Valleys,  and  in  the  Middle  Eastern  Rocky  Mountain  slope 
they  were  northwesterly.  In  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  and  in 
the  interior  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  north  to  east.  In  the  Lake 
region,  Tennessee,  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  south  to  east.  In  the  Pacific 
coast  and  Plateau  regions,  southeast  to  southwest. 

High  winds: — Winds  of  50  miles  and  over  were  reported  as  follows: 
On  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  1st  to  3d,  8th  to  28th;  on  five  of 
these  dates  the  wind  reached  a  velocity  of  100  miles  per  hour;  maximum 
wind  velocity  of  110  miles  S.E.  on  the  12th.  On  summit  of  Pike's  Peak, 
1st,  2d,  4th,  11th,  12th,  15th,  16th,  20th,  21st,  20th  to  28th;  maximum 
wind  velocity  80  miles  W.  on  the  21st.  Umatilla,  55  W.,  25th.  Fort 
Shaw,  Mont.,  50  S.W.,  1st.  Moorhead,  Minn.,  02  S.E.,  4th.  San- 
dusky, 04  X.E.,  1st.  Indianola,  51  N.,  11th.  New  Orleans,  52  S.E., 
6th.  *  Mobile,  00  S.E.,  0th.  Portsmouth,  N.  C,  52  N.W.,  1st.  Kitty- 
hawk,  52  N.,  1st.  Delaware  Breakwater,  58  S.,  12th.  Cape  May.  55 
X.W.,  10th.     Wood's  Holl,  52  S.E.,  28th. 

Local  storms. — During  the  passage  of  low  area  No.  VI.  northeast- 
ward over  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio  Valley  on  the  18th,  opposing  northerly 
and  southerly  winds,  accompanied  by  high  contrasts  of  temperature, 
prevailed  in  the  southwest  quadrant;  the  latter  ranging  from  35  to  45° 
between  Southern  Illinois  and  the  central  portion  of  Alabama  and  Mis- 
sissippi. Under  these  peculiar  atmospheric  conditions  there  occurred, 
quite  late  in  the  day  and  within  the  central  portion  of  Alabama,  a  terrific 
tornado,  which  passed  over  a  part  of  Tuscaloosa  County.  Its  path  ex- 
tended from  southwest  to  northeast,  a  distance  of  about  15  miles,  and 


316  THE    WEATHER. 


was  characteristically  narrow.  The  storm  cloud,  as  usual,  was  accom- 
panied by  a  loud  roaring  noise  and  a  rotary  motion  from  right  to  left. 
Several  persons  reported  in  connection  with  the  passage  of  the  cloud 
the  presence  of  large  balls  of  fire  which  sparkled  and  flashed  in  the  belt 
of  the  wind,  and  seemed  to  be  of  all  sizes,  from  the  dimensions  of  an  egg 
up  to  that  of  a  half-bushel  measure.  Hail  and  rain  followed  in  the  track 
of  the  storm.  The  largest  trees  were  twisted  off  near  the  stump  or  vio- 
lently uprooted,  and  over  twenty  buildings  were  either  unroofed  or  de- 
molished. Heavy  objects  were  conveyed  long  distances  and  the  debris 
of  buildings  and  fences  were  invariably  carried  from  the  east  around  by 
the  north  to  the  west,  and  thence  by  the  south  to  the  east.  This  storm 
passed  but  a  little  south  and  east  of  the  track  of  many  previous  tornadoes 
which  have  travelled  across  this  portion  of  the  State  in  the  same  general 
direction. 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Thunder-storms. — In  the  various  districts  they  were  reported  on  the 
following  dates:  New  England,  12th,  28th;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  5th, 
12th,  19th,  25th,  26th,  27th,  28th;  South  Atlantic  States,  11th,  16th  to 
19th,  21st,  22d,  23d,  27th,  28th;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  6th,  7th,  9th, 
11th,  18th,  19th,  25th,  26th,  27th,  28th;  Western  Gulf  States,  including 
Texas,  5th,  6th,  8th,  9th,  10th,  11th,  15th,  16th,  17th,  18th,  19th,  20th, 
26th;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  9th,  11th,  18th,  19th,  26th,  27th, 
28th;  Upper  Lake  region,  26th;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  17th,  20th, 
26th,  27th,  28th;  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  5th,  6th,  19th,  20th,  26th, 
27th;  Arizona,  5th,  6th,  17th;  California,  3d,  15th,  16th.  The  most 
important  storm  of  the  month,  except  along  the  West  Gulf  coast  from 
6th  to  9th,  began  in  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley  on  the  26th,  accompany- 
ing low  area  No.  X.,  and  as  it  passed  eastward  spread  over  the  entire 
country  from  the  Lakes  to  the  Gulf,  reaching  the  Atlantic  coast  on  the 
27th  and  28th,  where  it  was  experienced  from  Havana,  Cuba,  north- 
eastward to  Maine.  Storms  of  this  class,  gradually  increasing  in  number 
and  severity  on  the  approach  of  spring,  have  been  less  frequent  in  the 
northern  and  more  frequent  in  the  southern  section  of  the  country  than 
during  the  month  of  February,  1880.  As  compared  with  the  same  month 
of  previous  years  since  1873,  the  largest  number  were  reported  during 
February,  1881,  the  next  largest  in  February,  1878,  while  in  1879  the 
number  fell  to  near  the  minimum  which  occurred  in  1875.  It  is  very 
interesting,  and  still  further  there  would  seem  to  be  an  accordance  witn 
supposed  laws  of  periodicity  in  connection  with  the  recurrence  of  these 
storms  from  season  to  season,  to  note  that  in  a  comparative  study  of  the 
month  of  February  for  the  past  nine  years,  it  is  found,  as  an  invariable 
feature,  that  about  four-fifths  of  all  the  thunder-storms  occurred  be- 
tween the  15th  and  28th. 


Tin;    w  i  \  i  in  i:.  ;;i  , 

Auroras. — There  were  oo  remarkably  brillianl  displays  during  the 
monthj  but  rather  an  unusual  number  were  reported  as  having  been  wit- 
nessed over  thai  portion  of  territory  common  to  auroral  manifestations, 
reaohing f rom  Maine  westward  to  the  L05th  meridian.  Displays  of  this 
nature  were  observed  on  the  following  dates :  Lst,  from  stations  in  Ne- 
braska northward  to  the  northern  boundary  <>!'  the  United  States  ami  in 
Northern  New  England;  2d,  from  Kansas  northward  to  British 
America,  and  from  Virginia  northeastward  to  Maine:  20th,  from  Mon- 
tana eastward  to  Lake  Michigan  and  over  New  England.  26th, 
throughout  Dakota  and  Minnesota,  and  in  New  Bampshire.  27th, 
from  Southern  Kansas  northwestward  to  Montana,  northward  to  the 
northern  boundary  of  Lake  Superior,  and  over  New  England.  On  all 
of  these  dates,  and  particularly  the  last  three,  extreme  cloudiness  pre- 
vailed over  the  Lower  Lake  region,  preventing  any  display  of  auroras, 
even  if  they  occurred.  From  various  stations  local  displays  were  wit- 
nessed on  the  following  dates:  Fort  Stevenson,  Dak.,  28th,  a.m.; 
Spiritwood,  Dak.,  22d,  p.m.;  Saint  Vincent,  Minn.,  16th,  20th,  22d, 
p.m.;  Duluth,  23d,  p.m.;  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  5th,  a.m.;  Butlington,  Vt., 
3d,  midnight  to  12.15  a.m.;  3d,  4.20  a.m.  to  daybreak;  6th,  2  a.m.  to 
daybreak;  19th,  11.15  p.m.  to  midnight;  Bangor,  Me.,  5th,  p.m.; 
Eastport,  7th,  1  a.m.  to  3  a.m.;  Cambridge,  Mass.,  19th,  11  p.m.; 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  7th,  5  a.m.;  19th,  p.m.;  Gardiner,  Me.,  25th, 
midnight  to  4  a.m. 


THE   WEATHER. 


i  in:   u  i  a  i  HER, 


9.   MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,    MARCH,   1881. 
BAROMETRIC    PRESSURE. 

The  distribution  of  mean  atmospheric  pressure  over  the  United  States 
and  Canada  for  the  month  of  March,  1881,  is  shown  by  isobaric  lines 
upon  the  Chart.  The  area  of  highest  barometer,  which  has  been  moving 
steadily  eastward  from  the  Pacific  since  November,  1880,  and  which 
during  the  following  months  of  December  and  January  was  so  marked 
over  the  central  portions  of  the  country,  has  during  the  present  month 
passed  far  eastward  over  the  Atlantic,  leaving  a  remarkably  low  mean 
pressure  over  the  eastern  sections  of  the  country,  particularly  from  the 
Ohio  Valley  and  Virginia  northeastward  to  Maine.  The  rapidity  and 
extent  of  this  eastward  movement  is  shown  quite  forcibly  on  the  wind 
chart  by  the  general  and  decided  northwesterly  trend  of  'the  winds  east- 
ward of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  regions  of  maximum  pressure  are 
to  be  found  along  the  immediate  Gulf  and  Pacific  coasts,  where  only  im- 
material changes  have  taken  place  during  the  month.  Compared  with 
March,  1880,  the  pressure  of  the  present  month  is  strikingly  at  variance, 
as  is  shown  by  the  position  of  the  region  of  highest  pressure,  which  in 
1880  occupied  the  precise  region  now  embraced  by  the  abnormally  low 
pressures  of  the  present  month. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  range  of  pressure  during  the  month  has 
varied  in  the  extremes  from  0.35^inch  at  Key  AVest  to  1.42  inches  at 
Boston.  Ranges  of  1.00  and  above  were  reported  from  stations  in 
Oregon,  Washington  Territory,  Idaho,  and  Southwestern  Montana, 
throughout  the  Upper  Mississippi  and  Lower  Missouri  Valleys,  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Upper  Lake  region  and  thence  northeastward  to 
Newfoundland.  In  Tennessee  and  from  North  Carolina  south  and  west- 
ward the  range  nowhere  rises  above  0.98,  except  at  Fort  Gibson,  where 
it  reaches  1.03,  while  in  general  it  varies  from  0.5  to  0.75,  with  the  low- 
est ranges  along  the  immediate  Gulf  coast.  The  range  everywhere  in- 
creases with  the  latitude,  being  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  0.51  at  San 
Diego  to  1.12  at  Olympia,  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast  as  given  ab" 
Along  the  Gulf  coast  the  range  increases  gradually  from  0.35  at  Key 
West  to  0. 74  at  Brownsville,  Tex. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Six  such  areas  are  described  for  the  month 
of  March,  1881,  though  only  one  (No.  1)  exercised  any  special  influence 
on  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  country;  but  the  month  is  remarkable 
for  deficiency  in  pressure,  especially  in  the  Eastern  States.     On  the  New 


320  THE    WEATIIEK. 

England  and  Middle  Atlantic  coasts  this  deficiency  ranges  from  2. 5  to  3 
inches,  probably  the  most  notable  deficiency  that  has  occurred  since  the 
establishment  of  the  Signal  Service..  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  the 
minimum  temperatures  are  not,  as  is  the  general  rule,  associated  with 
the  areas  of  high  barometer,  but  in  the  majority  of  instances  have,  in 
March,  occurred  after  the  passage  of  the  centre  of  low  area  and  after  the 
veering  of  winds  to  the  northwest,  but  before  the  pressure  had  reached 
its  maximum  or  risen  above  the  normal. 

No.  I. — On  the  1st  there  was  a  great  rise  in  pressure  in  Washington 
Territory  and  Oregon,  following  an  area  cf  low  barometer,  which  on  the 
previous  day  advanced  to  the  eastward  over  British  Columbia.  At  the 
morning  observation  of  the  2d  the  following  were  the  highest  reported 
barometers:  Olympia,  30.44  or  0.43  above  the  normal;  Portland,  30.48 
or  0.41  above  the  normal;  the  rise  in  pressure  for  one  day  at  these  points 
being  respectively  0. 54  and  0.46  inches.  The  winds  on  the  coast  continued 
southerly  during  this  rise,  which  is  frequently  the  case  on  the  Pacific 
slope;  the  rise  in  pressure  appearing  to  come  from  the  southwest,  and 
there  is  seldom  the  veering  of  winds  to  the  northwest,  after  the  passage 
of  the  centre  of  low  area,  which  is  so  frequent  a  feature  of  storms  east 
of  the  Eocky  Mountains.  On  the  2d  the  centre  of  the  area  of  highest 
pressure  moved  slowly  to  the  eastward  into  Idaho  and  Utah,  but  the 
greatest  rise,  averaging  one-half  of  an  inch,  occurred  in  Colorado.  On 
the  3d  the  pressure,  slightly  yielding,  continued  above  the  mean  from 
the  Pacific  coast  to  the  Mississippi  Valley,  while  on  the  Texas  coast 
there  was  a  considerable  rise.  Cautionary  off-shore  signals,  changed 
from  cautionary,  that  had  been  ordered  in  advance  of  low  area  No.  II., 
were  justified  by  the  following  maximum  velocities:  Indianola,  43  N. ; 
Galveston,  32  N.  On  the  4th  the  region  of  highest  barometer  was 
transferred  to  Manitoba.  On  the  5tt  there  was  a  general  rise  in  pres- 
sure east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  but  the  centre  of  the  high  area  re- 
mained in  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley.  On  the  6th  there  was  a  rise 
averaging  nearly  half  an  inch  in  the  Lower  Lake  region,  and  the  isobars 
of  high  pressure  included  the  Lakes,  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  Tennessee. 
On  the  7th  the  highest  area  extended  from  the  Lower  Lakes  to  the 
South  Atlantic  coast.  On  the  8th  it  disappeared  in  advance  of  low 
area  No.  IV.,  then  moving  to  the  eastward  over  the  Ohio  Valley.  In 
connection  with  this  high  area  the  minimum  temperatures  of  the  month 
were  reported  from  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  Arkansas,  Indian  Terri- 
tory, and  Northeastern  Texas  on  the  5th,  and  from  the  Ohio  Valley  to 
South  Atlantic  coast  on  the  5th  and  6th. 

Areas  of  loio  barometer. — Nine  such  areas  have  had  their  tracks 
charted  for  the  month  of  March,  1881.  (No.  I.  not  charted.)  Of  these, 
one  (No.  V.)  has  its  track  charted  across  the  continent,  finally  disap- 
pearing beyond  the  New  England  coast.  Another  depression  (No.  VII.) 
undoubtedly  crossed  the  continent  from  the  Pacific  over  Mexico,  but  not 


Till!    \\  I.  \  Mil  c.  321 

within  the  limits  of  the  chart.  Pour  (Nob.  II..  IV..  V1JL.,  and  X.) 
hibited  great  energy  at  some  portions  of  their  tracks.  Five  (No-.  III.. 
VI..  VII.,  EX.,  and  X.)  developed  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States.  One  (No.  VII.),  after  crossing  the  continent  and  leaving  tin- 
Saint  Lawrence  Valley  on  the  21st,  becanx-  a  permanent  low  area  for 
the  rest  of  the  month  in  the  maritime  provinces  and  Nova  Scotia;  the 
lowest  reported  barometer  was  at  Chatham.  28.82;  al  the  afternoon  ob- 
servation of  the  27th,  which  was  1.05  inches  below  the  normal.  Two 
depressions  (Nos.  VIII.  and  IX.)  skirted  the  edge  of  the  great  depres- 
sion (No.  VII.),  bnt  neither  developed  much  energy  nor  merged  with  the 
original  low  area. 

TEMPERATURE    OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  March,  1881,  is  shown  by  the 
isothermal  lines  on  the  Chart.  Throughout  a  majority  of  the  various 
districts  of  the  country  the  temperature  is  below  the  normal,  while  in 
the  Upper  and  Lower  Lake  regions  no  change  occurs.  The  departures 
of  excess,  ranging  from  +0.4  in  the  Southern  Plateau  to  +8.5  in  the 
Northern  Rocky  Mountain  slope,  are  confined,  with  a  single  exception, 
to  the  northern  sections  of  the  country,  or  above  parallel  40°;  those  of 
deficiency,  ranging  from  —0.4  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  to  —4.8  in 
the  South  Atlantic  States,  embracing  the  Southern  districts,  are  most 
marked  in  the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  States. 

PRECIPITATION. 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall  (including  melted  snow)  for 
March,  1881,  is  shown  on  the  Chart  from  the  reports  of  over  500  sta- 
tions. The  regions  of  heaviest  precipitation  are  to  be  found  along  the 
immmediate  coast  of  "Washington  Territory,  throughout  Alabama  and 
Georgia,  in  Western  North  Carolina,  and  from  Northern  New  Jersey 
eastward  along  the  coast  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  and  thence 
northward  on  the  Massachusetts  coast  to  Maine.  The  regions  of  least 
precipitation  occupy  Western  Montana,  Southwestern  Wyoming,  North- 
western Utah,  Northern  Nevada,  Central  New  Mexico,  and  South- 
western Arizona.  As  compared  with  the  mean  of  past  years,  the  rain- 
fall for  the  present  month  is  in  general  below  the  average,  only  five 
districts  out  of  a  total  of  seventeen  reporting  an  excess.  Departures  of 
excess  range  from  +0.15  in  the  Eastern  Gulf  States  to  +1.67  in  New 
England;  those  of  deficiency,  from  —0.1  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  Val- 
ley to  —4.94  in  the  Northern  Pacific  coast  region.  The  rain-fall  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  and  Plateau  districts  is  quite  uniform  in  the  various 
sections,  but  the  range  for  the  whole  territory  (from  0.00  to  4.95  inches), 
though  considerable,  is  not  unusual. 
21 


322  THE    WEATHER. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows:  New  England,  11  to  25;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  11  to 
19;  South  Atlantic  States,  9  to  15;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  3  to  13;  West- 
ern Gulf  States,  9  to  11;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  15  to  22;  Lower 
Lake  region,  16  to  23;  Upper  Lake  region,  9  to  18;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  8  to  15;  Missouri  Valley,  9  to  11;  Eed  River  of  the  North  Val- 
ley, 6  toll;  Texas,  0  to  8;  Eocky  Mountains,  5  to  12;  Middle  Plateau, 
3  to  10;  Southern  Plateau,  1  to  11;  California,  1  to  8;  Oregon,  5  to  21; 
Washington  Territory,  11  to  20. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varied  in  New  England  from  10  to  24; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  8  to  20;  South  Atlantic  States,  5  to  12;  Eastern 
Gulf  States,  4  to  11;  Western  Gulf  States,  6  to  9;  Ohio  Valley  and  Ten- 
nessee, 6  to  21;  Lower  Lake  region,  13  to  21;  Upper  Lake  region,  10  to 
16;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  10  to  18;  Missouri  Valley,  8  to  11;  Red 
River  of  the  North  Valley,  5  to  9;  Texas,  1  to  13;  Rocky  Mountains,  4 
to  10;  Middle  Plateau,  3  to  8;  Southern  Plateau,  0  to  5;  California,  0 
to  6;  Oregon,  9  to  14;  Washington  Territory,  5  to  19. 

Rain  or  snow  from  a  cloudless  shy. — Bismarck,  18th. 

Snow. — In  several  instances  snow  has  fallen  at  points  having  a  more 
southern  latitude  than  occurred  during  the  past  month  of  February.  In 
California,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico  it  fell  along  the  extreme  southern 
boundaries;  in  Western  Texas  it  was  reported  from  near  latitude  30°  on 
the  20th,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State  as  low  as  latitude  35°  on 
the  18th,  19th,  and  20th;  in  Arkansas  below  latitude  35°  on  the  21st; 
in  Georgia  near  latitude  35°  on  the  21st,  22d,  29th,  30th,  and  on  the 
North  Carolina  coast  near  latitude  35°  on  the  5th.  In  the  various  dis- 
tricts north  of  parallel  35°  it  fell  on  the  following  dates:  New  England, 
1st  to  6th,  11  to  21st,  23d,  24th,  27th  to  31st;  Middle  Atlantic  States, 
1st,  3d,  4th,  6th,  12th,  13th,  14th,  23d  to  27th,  30th,  31st;  Tennessee, 
3d  to  6th,  20th  to  24th,  29th  to  31st;  Ohio  Valley,  1st  to  7th,  11th, 
12th,  13th,  19th,  25th,  29th  to  31st;  Lower  Lake  region,  1st  to  7th,  12th 
to  15th,  20th  to  31st;  Upper  Lake  region,  1st  to  8th,  12th  to  21st,  24th, 
27th  to  31st;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  1st  to  8th,  11th  to  25th,  27th 
to  31st;  Minnesota,  1st  to  8th,  12th  to  17th,  24th,  28th  to  31st;  Mis- 
souri Valley,  1st  to  16th,  18th  to  22d,  25th  to  31st;  Indian  Territory, 
3d,  4th,  18th,  19th,  20th,  21st;  Rocky  Mountains,  1st  to  26th,  28th; 
Southern  Plateau,  5th,  6th,  9th,  10th,  13th  to  20th;  Middle  Plateau, 
1st,  5th,  11th  to  18th;  Northern  Plateau,  1st,  2d,  4th,  5th,  7th,  9th  to 
18th;  California,  Campo,  13th,  16th,  17th;  Visalia,  14th;  Red  Bluff, 
9th,  10th;  Fort  Bidwell,  4th,  8th,  9th  to  12th,  14th,  15th;  Northern 
Pacific  coast  region,  4th,  9th,  11th  to  14th,  16th,  18th. 

RELATIVE   HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:   New  England,  68  to   77;    Middle  Atlantic  States,  54  to  77; 


Mil:    w  i   Mil  i  B.  323 

South  Atlantic  States,  54  to  80;  Eastern  (iuir  States,  55  to  70;  Western 
(inlf  States,  57  to  71;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  57  t.»  72;  Lower 
Lake  region,  76  to  81;  Upper  Lake  region,  73  to  82;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  ,;;>»  fco  75;  Missouri  Valley,  65  to  75;  Bed  River  <>f  the  North 
Valley,  74  to  85;  Texas,  33  to  73;  Middle  Plateau,  29  to  G5;  Southern 
Plateau,  27  to  41);  California,  60  to  73;  Oregon,  64  to  76;  Washington 
Territory,  70  to  82.  High  stations  report  the  following  percentages 
not  corrected  for  altitude:  Pike's  Peak,  65.7;  Santa  Fe,  48.7;  Chey- 
enne, 52.9;  Denver,  56.2;  Mount  Washington,  86.3. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  winds  during  the  month  of  March,  1881,  at  Signal 
Service  stations,  are  shown  on  the  chart  by  arrows  which  fly  with  the 
wind.  Throughout  the  country,  east  of  the  97th  meridian,  the  winds, 
with  hardly  an  exception,  were  from  west  to  northwest.  Throughout 
the  Rio  (J rand  Valley  southeasterly.  Along  the  Eastern  Rocky  Moun- 
tain slope  north  to  northwest.  In  Central  Texas  and  the  Plateau  re- 
gions,  variable.  In  the  Middle  and  Southern  Pacific  coast  regions, 
northerly,  and  in  the  Northern  Pacific  coast  region,  southerly. 

High  winds. — Winds  of  50  miles  and  over  were  reported  as  follows: 
On  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  1st  to  4th,  9th,  10th,  19th,  20th, 
•.''id  to  31st;  on  seven  of  these  dates  the  wind  reached  a  velocity  of  100 
miles  or  over;  maximum  wind  velocity,  132  miles  N.W.  on  the  27th. 
On  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  1st,  2d,  4th,  15th,  20th  to  22d;  maximum 
wind  velocity,  64  miles  N.W.  on  the  1st.  Thatcher's  Island,  66  N.W., 
11th;  65  N.E.,  30th.  Sandusky,  54  N.W.,  30th.  Barnegat,  52  E., 
30th.  Cape  May,  52  N.W.,  1st;  51  N.W.,  2d;  50  N.W,,  26th,  27th. 
Kittyhawk,  52  N.E.,  26th;  55  W.,  31st.  New  Shoreham,  52  N.E.,  30th. 
Cape  Hatteras,  58  S.W.,  30th.  Dodge  City,  55  N.W.,  2d;  56  N.W., 
11th,  Delaware  Breakwater,  50  S.W.,  4th;  70  N.E.,  9th.  Ports- 
mouth, N.  C,  72  S.W.,  30th. 

Local  storms. — Near  Fayette,  Jefferson  County,  Mississippi,  18th, 
2.30  p.m.,  violent  tornado  passed  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  a  distance  of 
about  five  miles;  width  of  storm  track  about  100  yards,  over  which 
every  movable  article  was  swept  away.  The  Natchez  and  Jackson  Rail- 
road bridges  across  Colle's  and  Ball's  Creeks  were  nearly  demolished, 
cutting  off  communication  for  several  days.  This  tornado  developed  in 
connection  with  the  passage  of  low  area  No.  VII.  northeastward  from 
the  Rio  Grande  Valley  across  the  northwestern  portions  of  the  States  of 
Louisiana  and  Mississippi.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  18th  cold  north- 
westerly winds  prevailed  to  the  northward  of  the  low  area,  in  Arkansas, 
Indian  Territory,  and  Missouri,  while  to  the  southward  along  the 
Western  Gulf  coast,  opposing  warm  southerly  winds  obtained,  present- 
ing a  contrast  in  temperature  of  from  20°  to  30°.  Galena,  Cherokee 
County,  Kansas,  16th,  a.m.,  most  violent  storm  that  has  ever  visited 


B24  THE    WEATHER. 

this  section.  In  its  appearance  it  was  described  as  very  similar  to  the 
terrible  tornado  that  devastated  Marshfield,  Mo.,  in  April,  1880.  Direc- 
tion of  storm  path  S.W.  to  X.E.,  width  of  track  about  300  yards. 
Everv  movable  object  in  the  storm's  path  was  carried  away  with  irre- 
sistible force,  but  fortunately  its  course  was  turned  aside  from  the  more 
densely  populated  portion  of  the  city,  which  prevented  very  serious  dis- 
asters. This  tornado  developed  in  the  southwest  quadrant  of  an  area  of 
low  barometer,  described  as  Xo.  VX  on  Chart.  On  the  afternoon  of 
the  16th,  this  low  pressure  extended  from  the  lower  Missouri  Valley 
northeastward  to  the  Upper  Lake  region.  In  rear  of  this  area  cold 
northwesterly  winds  with  snow  prevailed,  opposed  in  the  West  Gulf 
States  by  warm  southerly  winds,  which  presented  a  contrast  in  tempera- 
ture of  from  20°  to  30°.  Sumterville,  Sumter  County,  Alabama,  23d, 
5  P.M.,  very  violent  tornado  passed  a  little  north  of  station.  Direction 
of  storm  path  S. TV.  toX.E.;  width  of  track  about  40  yards.  Several 
large  buildings  and  many  outhouses,  stables,  etc.,  were  demolished. 
Heavy  objects  were  transported  considerable  distances,  and  in  some  in- 
stances chickens  were  carried  over  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  The  appearance 
of  the  storm  cloud  wa3  described  as  fearful,  resembling  huge  volumes 
of  black  smoke  ascending  and  whirling  in  the  form  of  a  funnel,  accom- 
panied in  its  passage  by  a  heavy  rumbling  noise.  This  tornado 
developed  in  connection  with  the  passage  of  low  area  Xo.  VIII.  over 
the  northern  portion  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Eastern  Gulf  States. 
After  the  immediate  passage  of  this  low  area  to  the  eastward,  cold 
northwesterly  winds  prevailed  to  the  northward  of  Alabama,  while  in 
the  southern  portion  of  the  East  Gulf  States  warm  southerly  winds  ob- 
tained, showing  a  contrast  in  temperature  of  from  15°  to  20° 

ATMOSPHERIC    ELECTRICITY. 

Thunder-storms. — In  the  various  districts  they  were  imported  on  the 
following  dates:  Xew  England,  1st,  2d,  16th,  20th;  Middle  Atlantic 
States,  3d,  4th,  9th,  12th,  13th,  16th,  19th,  20th,  29th,  30th,  31st; 
South  Atlantic  States,  3d,  18th,  19th,  22d,  25th,  26th,  29th,  30th: 
Eastern  Gulf  States,  3d,  7th,  9th,  11th,  12th,  13th,  16th  to  19th,  21st. 
25th,  26th,  29th;  Western  Gulf  States  (excluding  Texas),  7th,  10th  to 
12th,  14th  to  19th,  21st  to  25th,  28th  to  29th;  Texas,  6th  to  11th,  15th, 
18th,  24th,  25th,  28th,  29th;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  2d,  3d,  11th, 
12th,  16th,  18th,  19th,  25th,  28th,  29th;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  2d. 
11th,  14th  to  16th,  25th;  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  1st,  2d,  9th,  10th. 
14th  to  16th,  25th;  Arkansas  and  Indian  Territory,  6th,  9th,  10th,  11th, 
14th,  15th,  18th,  24th;  Xew  Mexico  and  Arizona,  8th,  9th;  Nevada, 
Carson  City,  31st;  California,  Red  Bluff,  9th,  20th;  Yosemite  Valley, 
31st;  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory,  along  the  Valley  of  the  Willa- 
mette, 1st,  23d,  26th.  Xo  thunder-storms  were  reported  from  the  Lake 
regions,  the  Xorthwest  or  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions. 


Tin:  WE  \i  mi:.  325 

Auroras. —  hi  general  there  were  no  unusually  brilliant  displays  re- 
ported, but  the  element  of  frequency  affected  quite  prominently  their 
appearance  in  the  Northwest.  The  most  important,  manifestation  of 
auroral  display  was  shown  on  the  evening  of  the  18th  by  a  somewhat 
remarkable  continuity  of  observation  extending  throughout  the  Lake 
region,  and  reaching  in  an  unbroken  line  from  Halifax,  X.  S.,  westward 
to  the  northwestern  extremity  of  Montana. 

Telegraphic  communication  interfered  with  by  atmospheric  electricity. 
—  Port  Grant,  Ariz.,  8th,  peculiar  electrical  condition  of  the  atmo- 
sphere; sufficient  motive  force  to  occasionally  work  instruments  on  the 
line  between  this  station  and  Fort  Verde,  although  there  was  no  battery 
attached.  The  galvanometer  was  constantly  affected  with  an  electro- 
motive force  of  ordinary  intensity  which  acted  in  a  contrary  direction  to 
that  usually  displayed.  Later  in  the  day  quantity  of  force  increased, 
but  intensity  diminished  between  the  two  stations ;  finally  current 
changed  to  opposite  direction,  followed  soon  after  by  a  fluctuating  quan- 
tity. La  Mesilla,  5th;  Jacksborough,  Texas,  6th,  9th,  11th;  San  Anto- 
nio, Texas,  24th,  Laredo,  Texas,  25th,  discharges  so  heavy  as  to  melt 
brass  connections  in  office. 


THE    WEATHER. 


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10.    MONTHLY  WEATHER  REVIEW,   APRIL,    1881. 

BAKOMKTKK      I'KKSSl/KK. 

The  distribution  of  mean  atmospheric  pressure  over  the  United  States 
and  Canada  for  the  month  of  April,  1881,  is  shown  by  isobaric  lines 
upon  the  Chart.  The  region  of  lowest  pressure  remains  about  station- 
ary over  New  England  and  the  maritime  provinces,  but  with  barometric 
readings  somewhat  lower  over  the  latter  section  than  for  any  previous 
April  since  18T4.  The  regions  of  highest  pressure  occupy  the  Eastern 
Gulf  coast  and  the  Northern  Pacific  coast  region.  Compared  with  April, 
1880,  the  distribution  of  pressure  is  about  the  same,  except  that  the  area 
of  high  is  less  marked  and  the  area  of  low  more  confined.  The  latter. 
extending  westward  to  the  Missouri  Valley  in  April,  1880,  is  entirely 
superseded  in  the  present  month  by  an  increase  in  the  extreme  of 
+  0.2  inch,  and  over  the  Lake  region  of   +0.12  inch. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  range  of  pressure  during  the  month  has 
varied  in  the  extremes  from  0.25  inch  at  San  Diego  to  1.37  inches  at 
Eastport,  and  1.38  inches  at  Fort  Buford.  Kanges  of  1.00  and  above 
wwe  reported  from  the  following  stations:  New  York  City  and  Albany. 
1.00;  Fort  Sill,  1.01;  Henrietta,  Tex.,  and  Burlington,  Vt.,  1.02;  North 
Platte,  1.03;  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  Moorhead,  Minn.,  1.05;  New 
London,  LOG;  Fort  Gibson,  1.07;  Kittyhawk  and  Yankton,  1.03; 
Thatcher's  Island,  1.1;  Fort  Elliott,  1.12;  New  Shoreham,  1.13;  Hat- 
teras,  1.15;  Saint  Vincent,  1.16;  New  Haven  and  Boston,  1.17;  Dodge 
City,  1.18;  Portland  Me.,  1.2;  Newport,  1.21;  Mount  "Washington, 
1.22;  Wood's  Holl,  1.32.  In  general,  the  range  has  been  greatest  from 
Texas  northeastward  to  New  England,  the  latter  district  being  the  only 
one  where  the  range  at  every  station  was  above  1.00  inch.  Throughout 
the  country,  except  from  Texas  directly  northward,  the  range  inert ; 
with  the  latitude.  As  compared  with  past  months,  there  has  been  a 
marked  increase  of  range  over  the  Florida  peninsula,  varying  from  0.11 
to  0.17  inch.  Along  the  southern  boundary  of  the  country,  the  range 
increases  from  the  southwestern  and  southeastern  extremes  (California 
and  Florida)  inward  to  the  maximum  in  Texas,  while  over  the  northern 
boundary  two  maxima  were  reached,  one  in  New  England  and  the  other 
jn  the  extreme  Northwest. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Five  such  areas  for  the  month  of  April  have 
been  sufficiently  marked  to  merit  a  brief  description,  though  none  have 
exercised  any  special  influence  over  the  climatic  conditions  of  the  country 


328  THE   WEATHEK. 

The  minimum  temperatures  of  the  month  in  the  interior  of  the  country, 
occurring  on  the  1st  and  the  2d,  are  associated  with  high  area  No.  1. 
The  minimum  temperatures  in  the  Middle  States  and  New  England,  oc- 
curring on  the  5th,  6th,  and  7th,  are  associated  with  a  great  depression 
then  central  over  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and  extending  into  the 
districts  named.  A  deficiency  of  both  pressure  and  temperature  was. 
reported  from  New  England  and  the  Middle  States. 

No.  II. — During  the  movement  of  high  area  No.  I.  to  the  south,  on 
the  1st  and  2d,  the  pressure,  although  diminishing,  remained  above  the 
normal  in  Dakota  and  Manitoba,  but  on  the  2d  a  marked  rise  took  place 
in  the  Saskatchewan  Valley,  and  on  the  3d  the  high  area  extended  from 
Montana  and  Dakota  to  Texas,  the  highest  readings  being  reported 
from  the  Missouri  Valley.  On  the  4th,  the  highest  barometers  were 
reported  from  the  Southwest,  but  on  the  ensuing  day  this  area  ceased  to 
continue  as  a  high  pressure.  In  connection  with  this  high  area,  a  maxi- 
mum velocity  of  51  miles  from  the  northeast  was  reported  from  Indianola. 

No.  III. — On  the  7th  and  8th,  after  the  passage  of  low  area  No.  I.,  to> 
the  eastward,  there  was  a  great  and  general  rise  in  pressure  west  of  the. 
Mississippi  Kiver. 

Areas  of  low  barometer. — Seven  such  areas  are  charted  for  the  month 
of  April,  1881.  None  are  traced  from  the  Pacific  coast.  Nos.  II.,  III., 
and  IV.  are  specially  interesting,  because  No.  III.  was  a  secondary 
development  of  No.  II.,  and  No.  IV.  a  secondary  development  of  No.  III. 
Of  the  storms  of  the  month,  the  only  one  showing  great  energy  was 
No.  IV.  Low  area  No.  X.,  of  the  March  Keview,  was  traced  to  Nova. 
Scotia  on  the  last  day  of  that  month.  The  pressure  remained  below  the 
normal  in  that  region  and  nearly  stationary  in  position  until  the  10th, 
the  lowest  reported  reading  being  at  Chatham  at  the  morning  observa- 
tion of  the  4th,  29.05,  or  0.8  inch  below  the  normal.  In  the  mean  time, 
low  area  No.  I.,  in  its  march  to  the  eastward,  skirted  the  border  of  this 
depression,  but  did  not  unite  with  it  within  the  limits  of  our  Charts. 

Nos.  II.,  III.,  and  IV. — These  three  depressions  should  be  described 
together,  as  No.  III.  was  a  secondary  development  of  No.  II.,  and 
No.  IV.  a  secondary  development  of  No.  III.  No.  II. — On  the  10th, 
there  was  a  considerable  decrease  in  pressure  in  Northwestern  Texas  and 
Indian  Territory,  showing  the  development  of  a  low  area  in  that  region, 
which,  at  the  midnight  report,  was  located  as  indicated  on  the  Chart. 
On  the  11th,  it  pursued  a  northeasterly  track  over  Arkansas  and  Mis- 
souri. The  precipitation  thus  far  was  confined  to  the  northeast  quadrant 
of  the  depression.  On  the  12th,  at  the  morning  report,  the  centre  of 
low  area  had  moved  near  Louisville,  when  the  pressure,  29.62,  was 
0.34  inch  below  the  normal.  At  the  morning  report,  the  pressure  in 
Nova  Scotia  was  below  the  normal,  the  isobar  of  29.8  inclosing  Chatham, 
Halifax,  and  Sidney;  in  the  United  States,  the  isobar  of  29.8  included 
the  Ohio  Valley  and  Lake  Erie.     The  low  areas  above  referred  to  were 


Ill  K    WEATHER.  329 

divided  by  a  bell  extending  from  Northwestern  New  York  to  Rhode 
[gland,  where  t  he  pressure  \\  as  30.00;  the  baromel  ric  gradienl  was  Blight, 
and  the  meteorological  conditions  were  nol  favorable  to  the  developmi  at 
of  storm  energy.  During  the  day,  area  No.  II.  was  filled  up  by  inflowing 
air.  In  the  mean  time,  during  the  passage  of  No.  II.  to  the  eastward, 
the  barometer  had  remained  below  the  normal  and  falling  in  Texas,  and 
at  the  a.m.  report  of  the  L2th  the  circulation  of  the  winds  indicated  the 
formation  of  a  new  and  independent  centre  of  depression  in  Northern 
Texas  and  Indian  Territory,  which  during  the  day  extended  northeast- 
ward into  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio  Valley.  On  this  day,  the  following 
great  falls  in  temperature  for  the  preceding  twenty-four  hours  were  re- 
ported: Fort  Elliott,  28°;  Fort  Sill,  46°;  Fort  Gibson,  37°;  Concho, 
::i  :  Stockton  26°;  Denison,  29°;  Little  Rock,  22°;  Memphis,  26°; 
Cairo,  25°;  St.  Louis,  21°.  On  the  13th,  with  diminishing  energy,  the 
storm  centre  passed  off  the  Middle  Atlantic  coast.  On  this  day,  the  cold 
wave,  before  noticed,  moved  to  the  southeastward,  the  temperature  fall- 
ing 20°  at  Louisville  and  Knoxville,  21°  at  Nashville,  23°  at  Chattanooga, 
25°  at  Memphis,  26°  at  Vicksburg,  27°  at  Shreveport,  and  23'  at  Mont- 
gomery. 

TEMPERATURE   OF  THE    AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  April,  1881,  is  shown  by  the 
isothermal  lines  on  the  Chart.  West  of  the  100th  meridian  the  tempera- 
ture is  everywhere  above  the  normal,  wdiile  in  every  district  to  the  east- 
ward it  is  below,  except  in  the  West  Gulf  States,  where  it  is  normal. 


PRECIPITATION. 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall  (including  melted  snow)  for 
April,  1881,  is  shown  on  the  Chart,  from  the  reports  of  over  five  hundred 
stations.  In  general  the  rain-fall  is  considerably  below  the  normal;  only 
two  remote  and  comparatively  unimportant  districts,  viz.,  the  Florida 
peninsula  and  the  Northern  Pacific  coast  region,  show  the  slightest  ex- 
cess. The  most  marked  feature  of  this  important  subject  for  the  month 
is  not  so  much  the  deficiency  in  any  particular  district  as  that  this  defi- 
ciency is  remarkably  general,  affecting  in  a  striking  manner  those  districts 
which  are  usually  subject  to  heavy  precipitation  at  this  period  of  the  year. 
As  compared  with  the  previous  records  of  Signal  Service  observations  for 
the  month  of  April  since  1874,  no  such  widespread  deficiency  has  ever 
been  reported.  The  departures  from  normal  are  most  marked,  save  two 
exceptions,  over  the  northern  sections  of  the  country,  the  largest,  2.34, 
being  reported  from  New  England.  There  has  been  little,  if  any,  vari- 
ation from  the  accustomed  diversity  of  rain-fall  over  the  Eocky  Moun- 
tain and  Plateau  districts;  the  largest  amount,  4.64  inches,  fell  on  the 


330  THE   WEATHER. 

summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  while  an  entire  absence  of  rain  was  reported 
from  scattering  stations  in  Arizona,  California,  Nevada,  and  Utah. 

Rainy  clays. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  or  snow  has  fallen 
varies  as  follows :  New  England,  7  to  19  ;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  7  to 
17 ;  South  Atlantic  States,  5  to  15 ;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  5  to  9  ; 
"Western  Gulf  States,  2  to  12  ;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  10  to  19 ; 
Lower  Lake  region,  7  to  14 ;  Upper  Lake  region,  4  to  15  ;  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  10  to  20 ;  Missouri  Valley,  3  to  12  ;  Eed  Eiver  of  the 
North  Valley,  8  to  13  ;  Texas,  4  to  1  ;  Eocky  Mountains,  5  to  15  ; 
Middle  Plateau,  4  to  10  ;  Southern  Plateau,  1  to  9  ;  California,  3  to  30; 
Oregon,  5  to  18  ;  Washington  Territory,  14  to  19. 

Cloudy  clays. — The  number  varied  in  New  England  from  2  to  10  ; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  5  to  12  ;  South  Atlantic  States,  2  to  13  ;  Eastern 
Gulf  States,  1  to  9  ;  Western  Gulf  States,  5  to  9  ;  Ohio  Valley  and 
Tennessee,  7  to  16  ;  Lower  Lake  region,  6  to  10  ;  Upper  Lake  region,  2 
to  9  ;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  4  to  12  ;  Missouri  Valley,  6  to  14  ;  Eed 
Eiver  of  the  North  Valley,  3  to  16  ;  Texas,  1  to  10  ;  Eocky  Mountains, 
5  to  10  ;  Middle  Plateau,  3  to  11  ;  Southern  Plateau,  1  to  6 ;  California, 
1  to  13  ;  Oregon,  11  to  19  ;  Washington  Territory,  13  to  15. 

Snotv. — The  extreme  southern  latitude  at  which  snow  has  fallen  is  a 
remarkable  feature  of  the  month.  Between  the  77th  and  107th  meridi- 
ans no  less  than  seven  localities  report  snow  as  far  south  as  latitude  35° 
between  the  1st  and  13th,  and,  in  two  instances,  below  that  parallel. 
In  the  various  northern  districts  it  fell  on  the  following  dates:  New 
England,  1st,  2d,  5th  to  7th,  11th  to  19th,  22d,  24th,  25th,  26th,  29th, 
30th.  Middle  Atlantic  States.— 1st  to  8th,  11th  to  13th.  North  Caro- 
lina.— Charlotte,  1st,  4th.  Tennessee. — 1st,  4th,  5th.  Ohio  Valley. — 
1st  to  6th,  9th,  11th,  13th,  15th.  Lower  Lake  region.— 1st  to  8th,  11th 
to  15th.— Upper  Lake  region.— 1st  to  6th,  10th  to  16th,  28th,  29th. 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley.— 1st  to  4th,  7th  to  15th,  24th  to  26th.  Mis- 
souri Valley.— 2d  to  12th.  Valley  of  the  Eed  Eiver  of  the  North.— 1st 
to  3d,  8th,  13th  to  15th.  Northern  Eocky  Mountain  Slope.— 1st  to 
12th,  23d  to  25th.  Eocky  Mountains.—  5th  to  14th,  20th  to  23d.  North- 
ern Plateau.— 5th  to  11th,  12th,  16th,  17th.  Utah.— 9th  to  12th. 
Oregon. — Albany,  8th,  18th.  California.— In  mountains,  17th,  22d, 
23d. 

Snow  from  a  cloudless  sky. — Logansport,  Ind.,  2d,  from  8.30  to  9 
p.m.,  fine  particles  of  snow  fell,  there  being  no  clouds  visible  for  two 
hours  previous,  the  moon  and  stars  shining  with  but  slightly  diminished 
brilliancy. 

Snow  on  ground  at  end  of  month. — Isolated  stations  report  the  fol- 
lowing depths  in  inches:  Auburn,  N.  H.,  5;  Mount  Washington,  20; 
Burlington,  Vt.,  0  to  1;  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  trace;  Fallsington,  Pa.,  0.25; 
Edgerton,  Wis.,  2.81;  near  Fort  Madison,  Iowa,  4.50;  Morriston,  Dak., 
18;  Dead  wood,  Dak.,  trace;  Pike's  Peak,  16.75. 


THE    WEATHER.  331 

Hail-storms  were  of  considerable  Frequency  west  of  the  Mississippi 

and  north  of  the  Ohio. 

RELATIVE    HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  range-  as 
follows:  New  England,  54  to  80;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  54  to  78; 
South  Atlantic  States,  55  to  85;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  59  to  77;  Western 
Gulf  States,  54  to  75;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  60  to  68;  Lower 
Lake  region,  62  to  74;  Upper  Lake  region,  58  to  73;  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley,  61  to  72;  Missouri  Valley,  62  to  73;  Red  River  of  the  North 
Valley,  72  to  76;  Texas,  50  to  75;  Middle  Plateau,  33  to  42;  Southern 
Plateau,  30  to  76;  California,  43  to  77;  Oregon,  56  to  69;  Washington 
Territory,  Olympia,  78.  High  stations  report  the  following  percentages 
not  corrected  for  altitude:  Pike's  Peak,  70.8;  Santa  Fe,  32.7;  Chey- 
enne, 51.2;  Denver,  45.2;  Mount  Washington,  79.6. 

wixds. 

The  prevailing  winds  during  the  month  of  April,  1881,  at  Signal 
Service  stations  are  shown  on  the  Chart  by  arrows,  which  fly  with  the 
wind.  Throughout  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi  the  winds  were 
from  west  to  northwest  except  southwest  along  the  South  Atlantic  coast. 
In  the  Western  Gulf  States  and  Texas,  southeast  to  southwest  and  south. 
Along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  northeast  to  north- 
west and  north.  Over  the  Middle  and  Northern  Plateau  regions,  west 
and  southwest.  Southern  Plateau,  variable.  Along  the  Pacific  coast, 
west  and  northwest,  except  southerly  in  the  North  Pacific  coast  region. 

High  winds. — Winds  of  50  miles  per  hour  and  over  were  reported  as 
follows:  On  the  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  2d  to  7th,  11th,  12th, 
14th  to  19th,  21st  to  23d,  24th,  25th,  26th,  28th,  29th,  30th;  on  four  of 
these  dates  the  wind  reached  a  velocity  of  100  miles  or  over;  the  maxi- 
mum velocity,  120  miles  N.  W.,  occurred  on  2d,  3d,  29th.  On  the  sum- 
mit of  Pike's  Peak,  2d,  13th,  14th,  15th;  maximum  velocity  68  N.W., 
14th;  Eastport,  52  N.E.,  15th;  Thatcher's  Island,  55  N.E.,  15th;  New 
Shoreham,  60  N.E.,  15th;  Cape  Henry,  52  N.,  14th;  Kittyhawk,  76 
N.E.,  14th;  Hatteras,  60  N.,  14th;  Portsmouth,  N.  C,  88  N.E.,  14th; 
Fort  Macon,  N.  C,  52  N.,  14th;  Indianola,  51  N.E.,  4th;  North  Platte, 
54  S.,  30th;  Fort  Stephenson,  Dak.,  50  W.,  26th;  Saint  Vincent, 
Minn.,  56  S.W.,  26th. 

Local  storms. — De  Soto  County,  Mississippi,  12th,  about  2  p.m.,  vio- 
lent tornado  appeared  to  originate  near  Commerce,  a  small  town  on  the 
Mississippi,  where  it  wrecked  ten  cabins,  three  gin-houses,  and  demol- 
ished a  store  and  its  contents,  valued  at  $2,000.  From  this  place  the 
storm  passed  in  an   E.X.E.   direction,  and  was  next  heard  of  at  a  point 


332  THE   WEATHER. 

about  five  miles  northwest  of  Hernando.     In  this  vicinity  the  loss  to> 
property  and  life  was  very  severe;    25  buildings  of  various  kinds  were 
totally  demolished,  and  10  persons  killed.     Length  of  storm-path  about 
25  miles,  width  from  100  to  300  yards.     Very  heavy  rain  and  hail  fol- 
lowed this  tornado  at  Senatobia  and  several  other  points  in  the  vicinity, 
in  some  cases  hail-stones  falling  the  size  of  hen's  eggs.     It  is  of  import- 
ance  to   note   that  the  occurrence  of   electricity  or   thunder  was   not 
reported  as  observed  from  any  part  of  the  tornado's  path.     Through 
portions  of  Prairie,  Monroe,  Lee,  and  Saint  Francis  Counties,  Arkansas, 
12th,  about  2  p.m.,  violent  tornado  passed  from  southwest  to  northeast, 
visiting  several  towns,  among  which  were  Brinkley,  Forrest  City,  and 
Cotton  Plant.     After  the  passage  of  the  storm  at  these  points,  showers, 
of  jagged  pieces  of  ice,  4  to  6  inches  in  width  and  2  to  2^  inches  in 
thickness,  fell,  resembling  broken  river  ice.     These  tornadoes  developed 
in  connection  with  the  passage  of  low  area  No.  III.  northeastward  from 
Texas  to  the  Ohio  Valley.     On  the  afternoon  of  the  12th  warm  south- 
erly winds  prevailed  along  the  West  G-ulf  coast  and  in  the  interior  of  the 
bordering  States,  which  were  opposed  to  the  northward  of  Arkansas  and 
Mississippi  by  cold  northerly  winds,  presenting  a  contrast  in  temperature 
of  from  35°  to  50°.     Still  farther  northward,  in  the  States  of  Illinois,. 
Iowa,  and  Colorado,  snow  was  reported,  with  temperature  of  19°,  26°, 
and  27°,  and  to  the  southward,  in  lower  Texas,  temperatures  of  80°  to 
90°  occurred.     Safford,  Chase   County,  Kansas,  30th,  about  6  p.m.,  tor- 
nado passed  from  southwest  to  northeast  over  section  of  country  three 
miles  north  of  station;   path  very  narrow  and  destruction  of  property 
considerable.     This  storm  developed  in  connection  with  an  area  of  low 
barometer  then  extending  from  Northern  Kansas  to  Central  Minnesota 
and  Dakota.     On  the  afternoon  of  the  30th  warm  southerly  winds,  with 
temperatures  ranging  from  60°  to  87°,  prevailed  over  the  lower  Missouri 
Valley,  opposed  to  the  northward  in  Dakota  and  Minnesota  by  northerly 
winds,  producing  contrasts  of  temperature  ranging  from  20°  to  30°.     At 
Emporia,  Kans.,  very  high  southerly  winds  were  reported  during  the 
day.     Total  movement  from  8.35  to  10.35  p.m.,  Ill  miles;   from  10.03. 
to  10.08  p.m.,  velocity  reached  the  rate  of  72  miles  per  hour;  at  10  p.m., 
velocity   64  miles  per  hour.     Clay  Centre,  Kans.,  24th,  very  violent, 
blowing  down  houses  and  trees,  and  overturning  railroad  cars.     Mam- 
moth Cave,  Ky.,  12th,  very  severe,  maximum  wind  velocity  60  miles. 
Garysburg,  N.  C,  29th,  blowing  down  trees  and  buildings.     Elsworth, 
N.  C,  8th,  buildings  unroofed  and  other  property  damaged.     Clarks- 
ville,  Tenn.,  28th,  7  a.m.,  very  violent  wind-storm;    several  buildings 
unroofed.     Fort  Douglas,  Utah,  18th,  very  violent,  blowing  down  fences 
and  unroofing  buildings. 

Water-spouts.—  Cairo,  28th,  three  water-spouts  observed  one-half 
mile  southwest  of  station  and  in  close  proximity.  Toronto,  Canada,. 
^6th,  10  a.m.,  on  lake. 


THE   w  i  \  i  in  i:.  ;,:;.: 

A.TM08PH  ERU     1. 1. 1.'  I  BI<  l  l  J  . 

Auroras. — There  have  been  an  unusual  number  of  displays  reported 
from  the  Lake  region.  Most  of  them  occurred  on  dates  coincident 
with  those  in  other  districts  to  the  easl  ami  west,  thus  completing  tin- 
connection  which  frequently  has  been  wanting  over  this  region,  from 
one  cause  or  another,  generally  presumed  to  be  cloudiness  ami  therefore 
frustrating  any  attempt  to  t face  a  continuous  line  of  observation  from 
east  to  west,  which  from  the  nature  of  auroral  display  is  known  to  be 
its  ordinary  disposition. 


THE   WEATHER. 


T1IK    U  1    VI  111  i:. 


11.  MONTHLY   WEATHER   REVIEW,    MAY,    1881. 

BAEOMETEIO   PRESSURE. 

The  distribution  of  mean  atmospheric  pressure  over  the  United  States 
and  Canada  for  the  month  of  May,  1881,  is  shown  by  isobaric  lines  upon 
the  Chart.  The  area  of  low  pressure,  which  remained  about  central  over 
New  England  and  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces  daring  the  past 
three  months,  which  has  now  disappeared,  being  replaced  by  pressures 
ranging  from  30.05  to  30.11,  which  are  the  highest  on  record  for  any 
June  since  1874,  and,  together  with  the  Northern  Pacific  coast,  are  the 
regions  of  highest  pressure  for  the  month.  The  regions  of  lowest  pres- 
sure occupy  the  Upper  Mississippi  and  the  Lower  Missouri  Valleys  and 
California.  Compared  with  the  preceding  month,  the  pressure  is  con- 
siderably higher  east  of  the  87th  meridian,  ranging  from  +0.05  to 
+  6. 4G,  while  to  the  westward  of  that  boundary  a  decrease  is  observed,, 
ranging  from  —0.02  to  —  0.14.  Compared  with  the  same  month  in  pre- 
vious years,  the  disposition  of  pressure  is  very  much  the  same,  except 
the  remarkably  high  area  over  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces.  Here- 
tofore the  pressure  has  averaged  about  29.95  in  this  section,  while  the 
high  areas  were  common  to  the  Northern  Pacific  coast  and  the  Eastern 
Gulf  States.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  that  in  the  pre- 
ceding month  (April)  the  lowest  pressures  for  many  years  prevailed  over 
the  Canadian  maritime  provinces,  while  in  the  present  month  the  re- 
verse prevails  to  even  a  greater  degree. 

Departure*  from  the  normal  values  for  the  month. — The  pressure  is 
everywhere  above  the  normal,  except  in  the  Gulf  States  (excluding 
Texas),  Florida,  and  along  the  Pacific  coast.  From  the  interior  of  the 
country  the  departures  increase  to  the  east  and  west,  the  areas  of  great- 
est deviations  coinciding  with  the  regions  of  highest  and  lowest  pressure, 
viz.,  New  England  and  the  Missouri  Valleys. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Six  such  areas  during  the  month  of  May 
have  been  sufficiently  marked  to  merit  description.  The  minimum 
temperatures  for  the  month  occurring  in  the  Northwest  on  the  2d;  in 
the  Lake  region  on  the  2d,  3d,  and  4th;  in  the  Ohio  Valley  on  the  3d 
and  4th;  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  on  the  4th 
and  5th,  are  associated  with  high  area  No.  1.  The  minimum  tempera- 
tures in  Tennessee,  the  East  Gulf,  and  southern  portion  of  the  South 
Atlantic  States  occurring  on  the  18th  and  19th,  are  associated  with  a 
depression  then  central  off  the  South  Atlantic  coast. 


336  THE   WEATHER. 

No.  I. — This  area,  which  was  described  as  high  area  No.  V.  in  the 
April  Eeview,  was  central  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  at  midnight  of 
April  30th.  It  moved  southward  during  the  1st  of  May,  and  at  mid- 
night was  off  the  South  Atlantic  coast.  During  the  2d  the  pressure 
gradually  diminished  in  the  South  Atlantic  States. 

No.  II. — At  the  morning  report  of  May  1st,  the  pressure  was  above 
the  normal  at  all  stations  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  except  Marquette 
and  Escanaba,  and  an  area  of  high  barometer  was  approaching  the  Lake 
region  from  the  Northwest,  where  the  pressure  was  0.2  inch  above  the 
normal.  This  area  moved  slowly  eastward,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
2d  was  central  in  Manitoba  as  an  area  of  30.4  inches.  During  the  2d 
the  temperature  fell  decidedly  in  the  Lake  region.  Continuing  its  east- 
ward movement  the  area  was  central  on  the  morning  of  the  3d  in  On- 
tario, when  the  isobaric  line  of  30.4  inches  embraced  the  whole  of  the 
Lake  region,  where  the  temperatures  were  from  12°  to  19°  below  the 
normal.  The  lowest  temperatures  reported  were  26°  at  Alpena  and  32° 
at  Duluth.  On  the  morning  of  the  4th  the  area  of  30.4  inches  em- 
braced New  England,  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  the  greater  por- 
tions of  the  Lake  region  and  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces.  The 
temperatures  continued  below  the  mean  in  all  districts  east  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  excepting  the  Gulf  States.  During  the  5th  and  6th  the 
pressure  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast  gradually  decreased,  the  area  mov- 
ing eastward  and  disappearing  on  the  latter  date.  Cautionary  signals 
were  ordered  up  on  the  morning  of  the  3d  from  Delaware  Breakwater  to 
Cape  Hatteras.  They  were  lowered  at  Chincoteague  and  Delaware 
Breakwater  at  midnight  of  the  3d,  and  on  the  North  Carolina  coast  on 
the  morning  of  the  4th,  having  been  fully  justified. 

No.  III. — This  area  appeared  in  the  Saint  Lawrence  Valley  at  mid- 
night on  the  7th,  and  moving  in  an  easterly  direction  during  the  8th 
and  9th,  caused  easterly  winds  and  local  rains  in  the  Canadian  maritime 
provinces  and  New  England.  At  midnight  of  the  9th  it  had  disap- 
peared. 

No.  IV. — During  the  11th  the  pressure  rapidly  increased  in  the 
extreme  Northwest,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  12th  an  area  of  high 
barometer  was  central  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  Missouri  Valley, 
where  the  barometer  was  0.3  inch  above  the  normal.  Following  in  rear 
of  low  area  No.  II.  this  area  moved  across  the  Lake  region  and  up  the 
Saint  Lawrence  Valley,  and  at  the  afternoon  report  of  the  14th  had  dis- 
appeared. In  advance  of  this  area  the  temperature  in  the  Lower  Lake 
region,  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  New  England  were  extremely 
high.  On  the  11th  and  12th  a  decided  fall  occurred  in  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  Valleys,  and  on  the  latter  date  in  the  Lake  region.  An 
abnormal  fall  of  33°  in  eight  hours  was  reported  from  Port  Huron  at 
midnight  of  the  12th.  The  maximum  temperatures  for  the  month  in 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States  occurred  on  the  13th,  at  which  time  the  high 


THE    uiaiiiii:. 

area  was  in  the  Like  region,  and  the  winds  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  Si 
were  northwesterly.     The  temperature  fell  decidedly  on  the  14th. 

No.  V. — At  the  morning  reporl  of  the  L5th  the  pn  of  the 

M  ssissippi  were  below  the  aormal.     Daring  the  L5th  the  pressures  re- 

ered  in  the  Lake  region,  NVw  England,  and  the  Saint  Lawrence  Val- 
The  barometer  continued  to  rise  rapidly  in  the  Canadian  maritime 
provinces   during  the  1 6th,  and  an  areaof   1 1  i .ir  1 1  barometer   remained 
nearly  stationary  in  the  Gulf  <>f  Saint  Lawrence  during  the  16th,  17th, 
18th.  ami  I'.uh.     On  the  latter  date  the  pr<  Liminished  Bomewhat, 

but  recovered  by  the  morning  of  the  20th,  and  continued  high  until 
midnight  of  the  21st,  after  which  time  tin-  pressure  decreased.  This 
area,  in  connection  with  low  areas  Nos.  til.  and  IV.  caused  strong  north- 
easterly winds  and  heavy  rains  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States  from  midnight  on  the  15th  until  the  22d.  Cautionary  signals 
were  ordered  up  at  Eastport,  Portland.  Boston,  and  Wood's  Holl  at 
midnight  of  the  16th,  and  the  signals  ordered  in  advance  of  low  area 
X<>.  HI.  from  Chincoteague  to  New  Shoreham  were  kept  displayed  until 
the  afternoon  of  the  17th,  when  lowered.  The  signals  on  the  Xew  Eng- 
land coast  were  lowered  on  the  afternoon  of  the  19th.  All  signals  were 
justified  by  the  following  maximum  velocities:  Eastport,  X.E.  55  miles; 
Portland,  N.E.  32;  Boston,  X.E.  36;  Wood's  Holl,  X.E.  28:  Thatcher's 
Island,  X.E.  44;  New  Shoreham,  X.E.  48;  Sandy  Hook,  X.E.  20;  and 
Chincoteague,  X.E.  28. 

X>.  VI. — The  pressures  remained  above  the  normal  east  of  the  Mis- 

ppi  after  the  passage  of  area  Xo.  V.  During  the  22d  the  barometer 
rose  in  Canada,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  23d  a  high  area,  of  0.3  inch 
above  the  normal,  was  central  north  of  Montreal.  This  area  moved 
slowly  eastward;  and  at  the  afternoon  report  of  the  26th  was  central 
east  of  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces.  On  the  27th  it  had  disap- 
peared. 

Areas  of  low  barometer. — Five  such  areas  are  charted  for  the  month 
of  May.  Xos.  IV.  and  V.  are  specially  interesting  from  the  unusual 
paths  pursued  by  them.  Xone  of  the  storms  charted  display  particular 
energy. 

X".  IV. — This  area  was  probably  a  secondary  development  of  Xo.  III. 
During  the  Kith  and  17th  the  barometer  continued  low  on  the  South  At- 
lantic coast,  and  threatening  weather  with  rain  continued  in  Xew  Eng- 
land and  the  Middle  Atlantic  State-,  in  which  districts  the  winds  were 
under  the  influence  of  high  area  Xo.  V.,  which  was  in  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence.  On  the  morning  of  the  18th  a  depression  was  central  south- 
east of  Cape  Hatteras.  At  this  time  cloudy  and  rainy  weather,  accom- 
panied by  strong  northeasterly  winds,  prevailed  from  Eastport,  Me.,  to 
Cape  Lookout.  The  cautionary  signals  which  had  been  hoisted  from 
Eastport  to  Xew  Shoreham  on  the  16th  were  kept  displayed.   During  the 

J  8th  the  depression  moved  northward,  and  at  the  afternoon  report  was 
22 


338  THE    WEATHER. 

east  of  Cape  May.  Thence  it  moved  westward,  and  at  midnight  was 
central  west  of  Barnegat,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  19th  was  west  of 
Philadelphia.  Thence  it  moved  north  to  Ontario;  was  northwest  of 
Rockliffe  on  the  morning  of  the  20th,  and  afterward  remaining  nearly 
stationary,  gradually  filled  up. 

No.  V. — On  the  morning  of  the  28th  this  area  was  central  in  the 
western  portion  of  Minnesota.  Light  rains  were  reported  from  the  Mis- 
souri Valley,  and  heavy  rains,  accompanying  thunder-storms,  from 
Texas.  The  depression  moved  slowly  southward  during  the  28th,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  29th  was  southwest  of  Omaha,  where  it  remained 
stationary  until  midnight.  On  the  morning  of  the  30th  it  was  south- 
west of  Leavenworth;  at  the  afternoon  report  it  was  central  in  Indian 
Territory.  During  the  31st  it  moved  to  Southern  Texas,  where  it  ceased, 
to  exist  as  an  independent  depression. 

TEMPERATURE    OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  May,  1881,  is  shown  by  the  iso- 
thermal lines  on  the  Chart.  With  the  exception  of  the  Rio  Grande  Val- 
ley, the  Southeast  Rocky  Mountain  slope,  and  the  Florida  peninsula,  the 
temperature  is  everywhere  above  the  normal,  ranging  from  +0.6°  in  New 
England  to  +6.2°  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley.  The  greatest  de- 
partures are  confined  to  the  northern  portions  of  the  country  east  of  the 
100th  meridian.  A  normal  condition  is  reported  from  the  Florida  pen- 
insula, and  only  a  change  of  —0.5°  from  the  Southeast  Rocky  Mountain 
slope. 

Frosts  were,  with  few  exceptions,  confined  to  that  portion  of  the 
country  north  of  parallel  40°.  To  the  southward  of  that  boundary  they 
were  reported  as  follows:  Maryland,  Fallston,  1st;  Glyndon,  17th,  20th. 
Colorado,  Pike's  Peak,  13th,  21st,  22d,  25th.  Nevada,  Carson  City,  7th, 
17th,  18th,  19th,  23d,  24th,  25th.  Arizona,  Prescott,  11th.  California, 
San  Gorgonio,  1st,  2d,  11th,  24th  to  26th;  Campo,  26th,  29th,  30th.  In 
the  northern  portion  they  were  reported  in  the  various  districts  as  fol- 
lows: New  England,  1st,  3d  to  5th,  14th;  Middle  States,  1st  to  5th,  7th; 
Lower  Lake  region,  1st  to  4th,  17th,  18th;  Upper  Lake  region,  2d  to 
4th,  7th,  15th  to  17th;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  2d,  4th,  15th;  Missouri 
Valley,  2d,  3d,  20th;  Northern  Rocky  Mountain  slope,  1st,  2d,  12th, 
18th  to  20th;  Northern  Plateau,  1st,  2d,  7th,  8th,  10th  to  12th,  14th  to 
19th;  North  Pacific  coast,  1st,  11th,  16th,  17th,  21st,  24th;  Umatilla, 
1st,  injuring  vegetation;  Dayton,  22d,  killing  vegetables. 

Ice  formed  during  the  month  in  few  localities,  and  invariably  in  the 
region  north  of  parallel  40°.  Strafford,  Vt.,  1st,  3d,  4th,  5th;  Mount 
Washington,  14th;  Fall  River,  Mass.,  1st;  Rowe,  Mass.,  3d,  4th,  5th; 
Friendship  and  Flushing,  N.  Y.,  1st;  Milton,  Pa.,  4th;  Chicago,  4th; 
Eagle  Rock,  Idaho,  7th,  18th,  19th. 


in i:  w  i  \  i  in  i:.  :\:','j 


i'i;i:<  irnuioNT. 

The  general distribntion  of  rain-fall  (including  melted  snow)  for  May, 

lssi,  is  shown  on  the  chart  from  the  reports  of  over  500  stations.  In 
genera]  there  is  a  marked  deficiency  for  the  month,  which,  however,  is 
conpled  with  striking  irregularities  in  the  distribution,  particularly  in 
Texas  and  the  Missouri  Valley,  where  in  several  localities  the  heaviest 
precipitation  ever  recorded  has  fallen.  This  unusual  record  of  rain-fall 
was  probably  due,  in  large  measure,  to  the  peculiar  direction  and  slug- 
gish movement  of  low  area  No.  V.  The  largest  deficiencies  occurred  in 
the  South  Atlantic.  Eastern  Gulf  States,  and  in  the  North  Pacific  coast 
region,  where,  particularly  in  the  two  former  districts,  large  excesses  are 
common  to  the  month  of  May.  The  largest  excess  was  reported  from  New 
England,  where  the  deviation  from  the  normal  for  the  month  has  not 
Keen  exceeded  in  any  previous  year  since  the  establishment  of  Signal 
Service  stations.  The  deficiency  in  the  Upper  Lake  region,  although 
.-mall,  is  not  unusual,  while  over  the  Lower  Lakes  the  deficiency,  though, 
larger,  is  considerably  below  the  average.  The  deficiency  in  the  Upper 
Mississippi  Valley  is  very  unusual  and  larger  than  ever  before  recorded. 

In  the  Southern  Pacific  coast  region  the  condition  is  normal,  being  the 
only  district  reporting  the  same.  Throughout  the  San  Joaquin  and 
Sacramento  Valleys  the  deficiency  has  been  considerable,  but  few  sta- 
tions reporting  any  rain-fall  at  all,  the  largest  being  0.79  inch  at  Red 
Bluff.  Over  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Plateau  districts  there  appears  to 
be  an  excess  at  many  stations,  although  the  usual  irregularity  of  distri- 
bution is  observable.     Elsewhere  the  changes  are  unimportant. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varies  in  New  England  from  5  to  17; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  5  to  16;  South  Atlantic  States,  3  to  10;  Eastern 
Gulf  States,  1  to  8;  Western  Gulf  States,  2  to  14;  Ohio  Valley  and  Ten- 
nessee, 1  to  9;  Lower  Lake  region,  4  to  11;  Upper  Lake  region,  4  to  14; 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  4  to  14;  Missouri  Valley,  8  to  23;  Red  River 
of  the  North  Valley,  8  to  14;  Texas,  2  to  19;  Rocky  Mountains,  5  to  11; 
Middle  Plateau,  4  to  6;  Southern  Plateau,  0  to  9;  California,  0  to  12; 
North  Pacific  coast  region,  6  toll. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  of  days  on  which  rain  has  fallen  varies  as 
follows:  New  England,  10  to  18;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  7  to  17;  South 
Atlantic  States,  5  to  14;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  3  to  11;  Western  Gulf 
States,  8  to  18;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  6  to  19;  Lower  Lake  region, 
10  to  17;  Upper  Lake  region,  6  to  21;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  10  to 
15;  Missouri  Valley,  12  to  20;  Red  River  of  the  North  Valley,  11  to  15; 
Texas,  7  to  21;  Rocky  Mountains,  12  to  24;  Middle  Plateau,  2  to  6; 
Southern  Plateau,  1  to  15;  California,  0  to  6;  North  Pacific  coast  re- 
gion, 2  to  13. 

Rain  from  a  cloudless  sky. — Fort  Myer,  Va.,  21st,   10.10  p.m.,  a 


340  THE   WEATHER. 

shower  of  rain,  lasting  five  minutes,  fell  when  the  entire  sky  overhead 
seemed  free  from  clouds,  and  stars  could  be  seen  shining  brightly, 
although  some  light  clouds  were  visible  near  the  western  horizon. 

Snow  fell,  with  few  exceptions,  over  a  narrow  belt  of  country 
reaching  from  Northwestern  Montana  southeastward  to  Central  Colo- 
rado, and  was  reported  from  various  stations  on  the  following  dates:  Fort 
Shaw,  22d,  23d;  Helena,  Deer  Lodge,  and  Fort  Benton,  22d;  Fort  Ellis, 
13th;  Deadwood,  11th;  Fort  Washakee,  Wyo.,  12th,  18th;  Cheyenne  and 
Denver,  17th;  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  1st  to  4th,  6th,  7th,  12th,  18th, 
19th,  20th,  23d,  26th,  29th,  30th,  31st;  Colorado  Springs,  17th,  18th, 
19th;  Carson  City,  Nev.,  22d  on  mountains  west  of  station;  Otego,  Nev., 
no  date;  Summit  and  Truckee,  Cal.,  no  date,  on  summit  of  Mount  Wash- 
ington, 2d,  6th. 

Snow  on  ground  at  end  of  month. — Pike's  Peak,  16.50  inches. 

Hail-storms  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  various  jmrts  of  the 
country,  the  most  destructive  being  reported  as  follows:  Newtown,  Penn., 
28th,  between  5  and  6  p.m.,  very  violent;  thousands  of  panes  of  glass  were 
broken,  vegetable  gardens  and  fields  of  grain  entirely  destroyed,  fruit 
trees  stripped  of  blossoms  and  leaves,  and  in  several  cases  of  bark.  Path 
of  storm  very  narrow,  in  some  cases  being  so  sharply  defined  as  to  follow 
the  highway,  committing  damages  on  but  one  side.  In  some  portions  of 
the  track  hailstones  as  large  as  walnuts  fell,  covering  the  ground  to  a 
depth  of  2  to  3  inches.  Direction  of  storm-path,  southwest  to  northeast, 
length  about  six  miles.  Terrific  hail-storms  visited  this  section  about  the 
middle  of  May,  in  1860  and  1869.  Belle  County,  Tex.,  28th,  p.m.,  very 
violent,  destroying  crops  and  damaging  buildings;  especial  injury  was  in- 
flicted upon  corn,  cotton,  and  wheat.  New  Hackensack,  N.Y.,  31st., 
during  afternoon,  terrific  storm,  extending  from  this  point  to  Fishkill 
Plains.  All  grain  along  the  storm's  path  entirely  destroyed  and  corn  and 
young  fruit  killed.  Storm  lasted  about  45  minutes.  Some  hailstones 
were  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  on  the  following  morning  hail  was 
found  in  some  places  a  foot  deep.  Saint  Clair,  Mich.,  14th,  3.30  p.m., 
rain  fell  in  almost  incredible  quantities,  and  hailstones  were  as  large  as 
hickory  nuts;  a  large  quantity  of  window  glass  was  broken  and  great 
damage  done  to  fruit  trees.  Bellville,  Mo.,  14th,  about  1  p.m.,  very 
violent;  fruit  trees  and  garden  truck  suffered  severely;  large  quantities 
of  window  glass  broken;  much  damage  to  farm  crops.  Brockway 
Centre,  Mich.,  14th,  about  3  p.m.,  terrific  storm  of  hail  and  wind,  hail- 
stones largest  ever  known  to  have  fallen  here;  some  measured  1\  inches 
in  diameter.  Hardly  a  house  in  the  track  of  the  storm  but  had  all  the 
glass  in  the  north  and  west  sides  broken  out.  Several  buildings  were 
blown  down  and  great  damage  done  to  grain  crops  and  fruit  trees. 
Length  of  storm  path  about  six  miles,  direction  from  southwest  to  north- 
east. Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  22d,  hail  fell  in  great  quantities  and  of  large 
size,  doing  terrible  damage  to  greenhouses,  tender  plants  and  strawber- 


Tin;   wi  \  i  HER.  '-'A  1 

pies.     This  storm  was  equally  severe  al  other  points  in  New  .)  iz.. 

Paterson,  Orange,  and  [rvington.  La  Mesilla,  L8th,  ball  inch  in  diam- 
eter. Colorado  Springs,  L7th,  3.10  p.m.,  lasting  l">  minute.-;  .-tones  one 
inch  in  diameter.  Spearville,  Cans.,  Let,  stones  size  of  walnuts;  much 
property  destroyed.  Fori  Davis,  2d,  4th,  26th,  stones  as  large  as  quails' 
eggs.     Eighland  Station.  Tex.,  8th,  doing  considerable  damage  to  crops 

and  window  glass.  Oor&icana,  24th,  hailstones  as  Large  as  hickory  nuts, 
great  damage  to  growing  crops.  .Macon,  N.O.,  18th,  10.07  to  11.45  a.m., 
completely  destroying  gardens  and  farm  crops  in  vicinity.  Nora 
Springs,  Iowa.  30th,  stones  varying  in  size  from  peas  to  filberts. 


RELATIVE    BTJMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows:  New  England,  71  to  89;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  58  to  90; 
South  Atlantic  States,  59  to  81;  Eastern  Gulf  States,  59  to  81;  Western 
Gulf  States,  66  to  77;  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  55  to  69;  Lower  Lake 
region,  62  to  75;  Upper  Lake  region,  G5  to  75;  Upper  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, 57  to  69;  Missouri  Valley,  66  to  70;  Red  River  of  the  North  Valley, 
67  to  69;  Texas,  31  to  76;  Middle  Plateau,  26  to  34;  Southern  Plateau, 
24  to  39;  California,  39  to  75;  Oregon,  44  to  57;  Washington  Territory, 
Olympia,  68.  High  stations  report  the  following  percentages,  not  cor- 
rected for  altitude:  Pike's  Peak,  65.4;  Santa  Fe,  35.8;  Cheyenne,  52.8; 
Denver,  52.2;  Mount  Washington,  82.1. 


WINDS. 

The  prevailing  winds  during  May,  1881,  at  Signal  Service  stations, 
are  shown  on  the  Chart  by  arrows  which  fly  with  the  wind.  Alotfg  the 
New  England  and  South  Atlantic  coasts,  and  from  the  Ohio  Valley 
southeastward  to  the  ocean,  they  were  from  the  northeast;  along  the 
Middle  Atlantic  coast,  from  southeast  to  southwest;  throughout  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  in  Texas,  southeast  and  south;  in  the  Lake 
region,  variable;  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  southerly;  over  the 
Middle  and  Northern  Plateaus  and  Northern  Pacific  coast  region,  north 
to  west. 

High  winds. — Winds  of  50  miles  per  hour  and  over  were  reported  as 
follows:  On  summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  10th,  a  violent  hurricane  prevailed, 
reaching  a  maximum  velocity  of  112  miles  per  hour  at  12.15  a.m.  of  the 
11th,  when  the  anemometer  cups  were  blown  away.  From  this  time  until 
2.30  a.m.  the  wind  increased  in  violence,  reaching  an  estimated  velocity  of 
150  miles  per  hour.  On  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  1st,  2d,  6th, 
9th,  10th  to  12th,  loth  to  19th,  27th,  29th,  30th.  Maximum  velocity, 
78  miles.  X.W.,  2d:  Fort  Keogh,  62,  X.W.,  21st;  North  Platte,  56,  S., 


342  THE    "WEATHER. 

16th;  Fort  Elliott,  52,  N.W.,  7th,  8th;  Fort  Sill,  60,  S.E.,  8th;  De- 
catur, 64,  N.E.,  25th;  Indianola,  5G,  N.,  29th;  Eastport,  55,  N.E., 
17th. 

Local  storms. — Near  Pensacola,  Fla.,  24th,  very  violent,  buildings 
blown  down,  and  many  trees  uprooted;  rain-fall  excessively  heavy; 
Carpenter's  Creek  overflowed,  and  the  ford  on  the  Ferry  Pass  route  was 
completely  changed.  McLenan  County,  Texas,  28th,  p.m.,  in  southern 
part,  several  farm-houses  demolished  and  two  persons  killed;  storm 
passed  from  S.W.  to  N.E. ;  in  the  northern  part  of  the  county,  near 
Crawford,  another  violent  wind  storm  passed  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  un- 
roofing and  destroying  buildings  and  seriously  damaging  crops.  Dallas, 
Texas,  30th,  very  violent,  unroofing  buildings;  rain  fell  in  torrents. 
Taylor,  Williamson  County,  Texas,  28th,  P.M.,  very  violent,  lasting 
forty  minutes;  every  building  in  the  town  more  or  less  damaged;  many 
were  totally  wrecked;  in  the  county  along  the  path  of  the  storm  fences 
were  blown  down  and  trees  uprooted.  Anna,  111.,  14th,  heavy  wind 
storm;  portion  of  the  Insane  Hospital  building  blown  down,  and  much 
other  property  damaged.  Chester,  111.,  14th,  terrific  wind  storm,  much 
damage  to  property  in  lower  part  of  town;  roofs  torn  off  and  buildings 
demolished;  considerable  loss  of  property  in  surrounding  country. 
Laurens  County,  G-a.,  14th,  during  the  evening  tornado  passed  from 
3ST.W.  to  S.E.  over  the  county,  destroying  everything  in  its  path;  the  de- 
struction of  timber  was  almost  unprecedented;  where  the  storm-cloud 
passed  over  an  oatfield,  it  literally  tore  up  by  the  roots  and  carried 
away  the  grain  over  an  area  of  125  yards  wide,  leaving  the  standing 
grain  on  either  side  unruffled;  the  storm  was  accompanied  at  many 
places  by  heavy  hail.  North  Platte,  9th,  twenty  miles  east  of  station, 
demolishing  houses,  windmills,  and  the  Union  Pacific  Eailroad  depot. 
Laredo,  8th,  unroofing  buildings,  blowing  down  signs,  trees,  etc.  Gaines- 
ville, Texas,  28th,  7  p.m.,  blowing  down  houses,  trees,  and  fences. 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  31st,  blowing  down  trees,  signs,  and  fences.  Co- 
lumbus, Ohio,  14th,  5  to  5.30  p.m.,  air  filled  with  debris,  buildings  un- 
roofed, trees,  fences,  and  signs  demolished.  Charlotte,  N.  C,  15th, 
2.50  p.m.,  unroofing  and  blowing  down  large  number  of  buildings,  and 
committing  other  damage.  Clay  Centre,  Kansas,  13th,  six  miles  S.E. 
of  station,  tornado  passed  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  several  buildings  demol- 
ished. Yates  Centre,  Kan.,  16th,  small  tornado  passed  over  Owl  Creek 
Township,  nine  miles  N.E.  of  station,  destroying  two  frame  houses; 
direction  of  storm  centre,  S.W.  to  N.E.  Westerville,  Ohio,  14th, 
centre  passed  about  one  mile  south  of  station  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion, blowing  down  trees,  fences,  and  buildings.  North  Lewisburg, 
Ohio,  14th,  very  violent,  blowing  down  trees,  building,  and  fences; 
storm  passed  from  S.W.  to  N.E.  Milton,  Pa.,  10th,  6.30  p.m.,  unroof- 
ing buildings,  uprooting  trees,  and  blowing  down  fences. 

Water-spouts. — Mobile,  31st,  observed  in  Mobile  Bay  at  4.30  p.m.; 


tiik   w  i  \  i  in  i:.  8  }•'• 

trunk  was  large  and  vrell-defined;  moved  From  southwest   to  aorthi 
was  visible  for  ten  minutes.     Clay  Centre,  Can.,  L7th,  L8th,  19th. 

8andstorms.—l?QT\  Grant,  L4thj  Fori  Verde,  LOth,  22d;  Tucson, 
6th to  LOth;  Camp  Thomas,  5th,  6th,  LOth,  L4th,  L9th,  22d,  24th,  25th, 
SOthj  Fori  Yuma,  Oal.,  9th,  10th,  18th,  21st. 

LTM08PHEBIC    ELECTBIOITT. 

Thunder-storms. — In  the  various  districts  they  were  reported  on  the 
following  dates:  New  England,  2d,  5th,  6th,  8th  to  13th,  loth  to  18th, 
22d  to  24th,  25th,  27th,  29th,  30th,  31st.  Middle  Atlantic  States,  2d, 
9th,  10th  to  16th,  20th,  21st,  22d,  26th  to  31st,  South  Atlantic  States, 
2d  to  4th,  6th,  10th,  13th  to  17th,  19th,  22d  to  25th,  28th  to  31st.  Flo- 
rida, 2d,  5th,  6th,  14th,  15th,  20th,  22d,  26th  to  31st.  Eastern  Gulf 
Stairs,  1st  to  11th,  14th,  15th,  21st  to  26th,  29th,  30th,  31st.  Western 
Gulf  States  (including  Texas),  1st  to  12th,  16th  to  31st.  Ohio  Valley 
and  Tennessee,  1st  to  10th,  12th  to  14th,  22d  to  24th,  26th  to  31st. 
Lower  Lake  region,  5th,  8th  to  14th,  28th,  31st.  Upper  Lake  region, 
:  ill  to  9th,  11th  to  14th,  26th,  27th,  29th,  31st.  Upper  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, 1st,  2d,  4th,  7th  to  14th,  16th,  19th,  21st  to  31st.  Lower  Missouri 
Valley,  1st  to  23d,  26th  to  31st.  Southern  Slope,  1st  to  3d,  12th  to 
15th/  17th,  18th,  22d,  24th,  25th.  Middle  Slope,  1st,  6th,  8th, 
9th,  10th,  15th,  16th,  23d  to  26th,  28th  to  30th.  Northern  Slope,  3d, 
4th,  6th,  8th,  9th,  10th,  15th,  22d,  24th  to  31st.  Southern  Plateau. 
14th,  15th.  Middle  Plateau,  9th,  10th,  15th.  Northern  Plateau,  3d, 
4th,  8th,  12th,  20th,  22d,  27th,  30th.  Southern  Pacific  coast  region,  14th, 
15th,  16th,  17th.  Middle  Pacific  coast  region,  1st,  15th,  21st  to  24th. 
Northern  Pacific  coast  region,  27th. 

A  tmosplieric  electricity  interfering  tuith  telegraphic  communication. — 
Port  Keogh,  31st,  lightning  very  vivid  and  almost  continuous,  but  no 
audible  thunder;  had  to  cut  out  instruments.  Deadwood,  24th,  25th, 
26th;  Fort  Griffin,  24th,  25th;  Jacksonboro',  3d,  4th,  11th,  26th  to 
28th;  Eagle  Pass,  4th,  5th,  7th;  Castroville,  5th  to  7th,  17th,  18th, 
28th,  29th;  San  Antonio,  28th,  29th;  Fort  McKavett,  3d,  17th,  18th; 
Brackettville,  3d,  4th,  5th,  7th,  18th;  Fort  Elliott,  12th;  Mount 
Washington,  10th. 

Ground  currents. — Dayton,  Wash.,  30th;  Deadwood,  23d. 


THE    WEATHER. 


I  III.     \\  I. A  I  lll.K. 


12.  MONTHLY   WEA.THER  REVIEW,   JUNE,   1881. 
BAROMETRIC    PRE88UEB. 

The  distribution  of  mean  al  mospheric  pressure  oyer  the  United  States 
and  Canada  for  the  month  of  June,  1881,  is  shown  hy  isobaric  lines 
upon  the  Chart.  The  region  of  the  area  of  low,  which  is  changed  dur- 
ing the  month  of  .May  from  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces  to  the 
Missouri  Valley,  still  remains  over  the  latter  district,  but  with  a  more 
decided  and  extensive  depression.  The  pressure  over  the  former  district 
has  fallen  very  decidedly,  forming  an  area  of  29.85,  which,  with  that 
over  the  Missouri  Valley,  makes  two  areas  of  low  for  the  present  month. 
For  the  same  latitudes,  the  pressure  is  very  evenly  distributed  over  the 
country  east  of  the  100th  meridian,  but  it  is  generally  low,  the  highest, 
30.00,  being  reported  from  only  two  stations — Cedar  Keys  and  Port 
Eads — and  the  lowest,  29.83,  at  Chatham,  and  29.84  at  Moorhead. 
There  are  two  areas  of  comparatively  high  pressure,  one  covering  the 
Gulf  coast  and  the  other  the  North  Pacific  coast.  Compared  with  the 
preceding  month,  the  pressure  is  everywhere  lower,  except  over  the  Flo- 
rida Peninsula,  where  there  is  a  slight  rise.  The  greatest  change  is 
shown  over  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces,  where  a  fall  of  0.16  to 
0.25  inch  is  reported. 

Barometric  ranges. — The  range  of  pressure  for  the  month  has  va- 
ried in  the  extremes  from  0.18  inch  at  Campo,  Cal.,  to  1.01  inches  at 
Eastport.  In  general,  the  range  varied  from  0.4  to  0.6  inch.  Along  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  country,  the  range  increases  from  California 
and  Florida  inward  to  the  maximum  at  Brownsville,  Tex.,  while  over 
the  northern  boundary  it  diminishes  from  Washington  Territory  and 
Maine  inward  to  the  minimum  in  Montana. 

Areas  of  high  barometer. — Six  such  areas  have  been  sufficiently  im- 
portant during  the  month  of  June,  1881,  to  merit  description. 

No.  I. — This  area  appeared  on  the  morning  of  the  1st  over  the 
Northern  Slope  and  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Middle  Plateau  region, 
where  the  pressure  was  from  0.06  to  0.1  inch  above  the  normal.  2d,  moved 
slowly  eastward,  covering  the  region  from  Western  Texas  northward  to 
British  America;  barometer  0.09  to  0.2  inch  above  the  normal.  3d, 
covered  nearly  the  whole  of  Texas,  and  spread  eastward  over  the  Upper 
Mississippi  Valley  and  western  portion  of  the  Upper  Lakes;  Leaven- 
worth f  0.19.  Saint  Paul  +0.16,  and  Duluth  +0.13  inch  above  the  nor- 
mal. On  this  and  the  preceding  day  the  lowest  temperatures  of  the 
month  in  Texas  were  recorded  at  most  stations.   During  the  4th  and  5th, 


346  THE    WEATHER. 

passed  southeastward  over  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio  Valley  to  the  South 
Atlantic  coast.  On  these  dates  the  lowest  temperatures  of  the  month  in 
the  Upper  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Valleys,  Tennessee,  the  Eastern  Gulf 
and  South  Atlantic  States  were  reported  from  most  stations. 

No.  II. — Appeared  on  the  afternoon  of  the  5th  over  the  Lake  Su- 
perior region;  Marquette  barometer,  0.12  inch  above  the  normal.  By 
the  afternoon  of  the  6th  this  area  had  spread  southeastward  to  the  Mid- 
dle Atlantic  coast  and  eastward  to  Maine;  barometer  0.03  to  0.2  inch 
above  the  normal.  7th,  pressure  above  the  normal  along  the  entire  At- 
lantic coast  from  Key  West  to  Sidney,  Cape  Breton  Island.  On  this 
date  occurred  in  New  England  the  lowest  temperatures  of  the  month. 
8th,  disappeared  over  the  ocean. 

No.  III. — As  area  No.  II.  left  the  Atlantic  coast  the  pressure  again 
rose  decidedly  over  the  Lake  Superior  region,  and  by  the  morning  of  the 
9th  the  area  of  high  covered  the  Missouri  Valley,  and  extended  thence 
northeastward  over  the  Upper  Lakes  and  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence;  barometer  from  0.03  to  0.18  inch  above  the  normal.  During 
the  9th  the  area  spread  southward  to  Tennessee  and  covered  the  whole 
of  New  England  and  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces,  where,  in  the 
latter  district,  the  barometer  was  from  0.15  to  0.34  inch  above  the  nor- 
mal. 10th,  pressure  rose  rapidly  over  New  England  and  the  maritime 
provinces,  where  the  barometer  was  from  0.25  to  0.45  inch  above  the 
normal.  11th,  jjressure  rapidly  diminishing;  area  covered  the  country 
from  the  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee  eastward  to  the  Atlantic.  12th, 
remained  about  stationary,  pressure  slowly  rising  along  the  immediate 
coast  and  "in  the  maritime  provinces.  13th,  disappeared  entirely  during 
the  night,  except  at  Sidney,  Cape  Breton  Island,  which  remained  above 
the  normal  until  the  afternoon  of  the  14th. 

No.  IV. — On  the  morning  of  the  13th  the  pressure  was  slightly  above 
the  normal  from  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  northward  to  British  Amer- 
ica, and  by  midnight  this  area  had  extended  eastward  to  the  Mississippi, 
and  covered  every  western  district  except  the  Middle  Plateau  and  Cali- 
fornia, being  from  0. 01  to  0. 1 1  inch  above  the  normal.  14th,  spread  east- 
ward to  about  the  80th  meridian,  highest  pressure  in  the  Missouri  Valley; 
barometer  slowly  falling  over  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Plateau  regions. 
15th,  covered  the  entire  country  (except  Florida)  from  Texas  northeast- 
ward to  Maine;  barometer  from  0.02  to  0.03  inch  above  the  normal; 
highest  over  the  Lake  region.  16th,  barometer  above  the  normal  over 
the  entire  country,  except  Florida,  the  maritime  provinces,  and  the 
Upper  Mississippi  and  Lower  Missouri  Valleys;  highest  pressure  over  the 
Lower  Lakes.  17th,  one  portion  of  area  disappeared  off  the  South  At- 
lantic coast  and  the  remainder  over  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

No.  V. — Passed  southeastward  from  the  Saskatchewan  Valley  on  the 
19th;  Fort  Bufort  barometer  at  midnight  0.27  inch  above  the  normal. 
20th,  covered  the  region  north  of  Iowa  and  Illinois  and  everv  district 


•i  in:    w  i.  \  i  11 1  EL  '■'• 1  7 

westward  to  the  Pacific,  ezoepl  the  Middle  Platean;  highesi  pressure  in 
Dakota  and  Minnesota,  where  the  barometer  was  from  0.13  to  0.3  inch 
above  the  normal.  21st,  moved  southeastward,  the  line  of  no  <h;uige 
passing  northeastward  from  Indian  Territory  to  the  eastern  end  of  Lake 
Ontario;  highesi  pressure  still  in  the  northwest,  -.'•id,  pressure  above 
the  normal  over  the  entire  northern  half  of  the  country,  except  New 
ESngland;  highesi  pressure  over  the  Upper  Lakes.  &3d,  pressure  above 
the  normal  over  the  entire  country  north  of  the  35th  parallel,  except  the 
Pacific  coast;  highest  pressure  over  the  Lake  region.  24th,  pressure 
everywhere  above  the  normal,  east  of  the  107th  meridian,  except  along 
the  Q-ulf  coast;  highest  over  the  Lower  Lakes.  25th,  centre  of  highest 
pressure  about  stationary;  area  (dosing  up  from  the  south,  the  line  of  no 
change  running  eastward  through  Tennessee.  20th.  pressure  above  the 
normal  from  the  Gulf  northeastward  to  the  Saint  Lawrence  Valley; 
highest  barometer  over  New  England  and  eastward.  27th,  by  midnight 
area  confined  to  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces;  barometer  0.1  to  0.19 
inch  above  the  normal.  28th,  disappeared  off  the  Nova  Scotia  coast 
during  the  afternoon. 

No.  VI. — On  the  morning  of  the  28th  the  influence  of  a  high-pres- 
sure area  was  observed  descending  over  Montana  and  Dakota  from  the 
Saskatchewan  Valley  and  moving  southeastward;  by  afternoon  Fort 
Buford  harometer  0.09  inch  above  the  normal.  29th,  a.m.,  barometer  at 
at  Bismarck  0.2  inch  above  the  normal,  the  high  area  during  the  day 
extending  southeastward  into  Iowa  and  Kansas.  30th,  A.M.,  barometer 
at  Duluth  0.18  inch  above  the  normal;  area  extended  southwestward  into 
Colorado  and  northeastward  over  the  Upper  Lakes.  By  midnight  the 
pressure  was  from  0.02  to  0.29  inch  above  the  normal  from  Texas  north- 
eastward to  the  province  of  Ontario  and  northward  to  the  Lake  Superior 
region.  Further  description  of  this  area  will  be  found  in  the  July,  1881, 
review. 

Areas  of  low  barometer. — Six  such  areas  have  been  charted  for  the 
month  of  June,  1881.  No  unusual  display  of  energy  was  noted  in  the 
progress  of  any  of  them. 

TEMPERATURE   OF   THE   AIR. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  June,  1881,  is  shown  by  the 
isothermal  lines  on  the  Chart.  Departures  of  such  means  from  the  ave- 
rage for  many  years.  From  Lake  Superior  southeastward  to  North  Car- 
olina, and  thence  northeastward  to  the  Canadian  maritime  provinces, 
the  temperature  is  from  2.7°  to  4.4°  below  the  normal;  over  the  northern 
half  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  the  Northern  Plateau  district,  from  1.3° 
to  3.1°  below  the  normal.  Elsewhere  in  the  various  districts  the  tempe- 
rature is  from  0.4°  to  5.1°  above  the  normal,  except  in  the  Upper 
Mississippi  Valley  and  South  Pacific  coast  region,  where  no  change  is 


348  THE    WEATHEE. 

recorded.  Mount  Washington  is  5.3°  below;  Pike's  Peak,  7.4°  above, 
and  Salt  Lake  City,  3.0°  above. 

Hiyli  temperatures. — New  Orleans,  during  the  week  ending  June 
18th,  highest  maximum  temperatures  in  past  43  years;  12th,  91°;  13th, 
92°;  14th,  95°:  loth,  94;  16th,  96°;  17th,  92°;  18th,  91°.  Sunstrokes 
were  numerous  on  the  following  dates:  14th  to  17th,  21st,  23d,  25th  to 
2Tth.  Laborers  ceased  work  on  25th  on  account  of  extreme  heat. 
Carthage,  Mo.,  10th,  temperature  104°  in  the  shade;  all  workmen  on 
the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad  compelled  to  quit  labor.  Xorth  Platte. 
28th,  temperature  94°;  one  case  of  sunstroke;  first  ever  known  here; 
Mobile  15th,  sunstrokes  reported;  24th,  business  suspended  on  account 
heat. 

Frosts. — With  the  exception  of  Highlands,  X.  C,  on  the  5th,  no 
station  east  of  the  100th  meridian  and  south  of  parallel  40°  reported 
their  occurrence.  They  were  reported  from  Xew  England  and  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  on  the  following 
dates:  2d,  5thto  7th,  15th,  16th,  21st  to  24th;  Lake  region,  2d,  5th,  11th, 
21st  to  24th:  Middle  Rocky  Mountain  slope,  3d,  8th,  19th,  22d,  23d, 
24th;  Northern  Plateau.  15th,  16th,  21st,  22d;  Middle  Plateau,  7th,  8th, 
10th,  20th,  21st,  22d;  Xorth  Pacific  coast  region,  8th;  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, 4th,  11th,  18th,  19th,  20th,  21st,  29th.  They  were  reported  as 
injurious  to  vegetation  from  various  localities,  as  follows:  Eagle  Rock, 
16th;  Escanaba,  6th;  Port  Huron,  5th,  6th,  10th,  21st,  23d;  Oswego 
and  Mount  Washington.  7th:  Thornville,  Mich..  6th,  21st,  22d,  24th; 
Friendship.  X.  Y..  22d;  Dyberry,  Pa.,  and  Port  Jervis,  and  Watertown, 
X.  Y.,  7th;  Coalville.  Utah,  22d. 

Ice. — The  only  station  reporting  its  formation  during  the  month  was 
Mount  "Washington,  on  the  following  dates:  3d,  4th,  5th,  6th. 

PKECIPITATIOX. 

The  general  distribution  of  rain-fall  for  June,  1881,  is  shown  on  the 
Chart,  from  the  reports  of  over  500  stations.  Epon  examination  of  the 
chart  and  a  comparison  with  the  records  of  June  for  previous  years,  there 
is  found  a  marked  deficiency  over  the  southern  half  of  the  country  east 
of  the  100th  meridian.  Other  deficiencies  are  found  in  the  Lower  Mis- 
souri Valley,  Minnesota,  and  Epper  Lakes.  The  greatest  deficiency 
occurred  in  the  West  Gulf  States  and  Texas,  where  (particularly  in  the 
latter)  a  period  of  almost  unprecedented  drought  occurred.  There  was 
a  marked  deficiency  in  the  South  Atlantic  States — 2.40  inches,  but  no 
reports  of  special  suffering  from  drought  are  at  hand.  The  excess  of 
rain-fall  was  most  marked  from  Canada  southeastward  to  the  Atlantic, 
over  a  portion  of  which  region  exceedingly  heavy  floods  occurred.  Slight 
excesses  were  reported  in  the  Ohio,  Epper  Mississippi,  and  Epper  Mis- 
souri Valleys,    although  there  were  many  isolated   cases   of  unusually 


Tin;   w  i  \  1  in  i.\  849 

heavy  rain-falls.     Along  the  Pacific  coasi  the  range  is  from   aorma]  in 
the  South  Pacific  region  to  -  L.34  inches  in  tin   North  Pacific  region. 

Rainy  days. — The  number  varied  in  New  England  from  11  to  21; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  11  to  18;  South  Atlantic  States,  8  to  L7;  Eaal 
Gulf  States,  4  to  L2;  Wesl  Gulf  States,  0  to  1";  Ohio  Valley  and  Ten- 
nessee, 11  to  21;  Lower  Lake  region,  1"  to  L7;  [Jpper  Lake  region, 
L2  to  20;  [Jpper  Mississippi  Valley,  l"i  to  21;  Missouri  Valley.  14  to 
L7;  extreme  Northwest,  8  to  15;  Northern  Slope,  3  to  14;  Middle 
Slope,  2  to  9;  Southern  Slope,  1  to  7;  Rio  Grande  Valley,  1  t<<  2; 
Southern  Plateau.  0  to  r.  Middle  Plateau,  1  to  5;  Northern  Plateau,  '■'> 
to  20;  North  Pacific  coast  region,  12  to  20;  Middle  and  South  Pacific 
coasi  regions,  0  to  1. 

Cloudy  days. — The  number  varied  in  New  England  from  4  to  14: 
Middle  Atlantic  States.  6  to  14;  South  Atlantic  States.  0  to  L7; 
Bast  Gulf  States,  1  to  8;  West  Gulf  States,  0  to  3;  Ohio  Valley  and 
Tennessee,  0  to  12;  Lower  Lake  region,  8  to  12;  Upper  Lake  region,  5 
to  11;  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  5  to  10:  Missouri  Valley,  3  to  12; 
extreme  Northwest,  6  to  13;  Northern  Slope,  3  to  10;  Middle  Slope,  0 
to  3;  Southern  Slope,  0  to  2;  Rio  Grande  Valley,  0  to  2;  Southern 
Plateau,  0  to  7;  Middle  Plateau,  0  to  4;  Xorthern  Plateau,  4  to  14; 
North  Pacific  coast  region,  14  to  20;  Middle  and  South  Pacific  coast 
regions,  0  to  7. 

Snow. — Carson  City,  Nev.,  7th,  fell  on  mountains  west  of  station 
during  night;  Fort  Bidwell,  Cal.,  7th;  Bangor,  Me.,  lGth;  Mount 
Washington,  21st;  Pike's  Peak,  2d,  4th,  5th;  Fort  Benton,  9th,  11th, 
22d. 

Hail-storms  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  the  most  destructive  being  reported  as  follows:  Franklin,  N. 
H.,  22d,  about  4  p.m.,  many  hail-stones  were  more  than  one  inch  in 
diameter;  half  the  houses  in  the  town  had  their  windows  shattered, 
and  gardens  everywhere  were  ruined;  28th,  hail-stones  fell  more  than 
half  an  inch  in  diameter;  two-thirds  of  the  buildings  in  the  town  had 
their  windows  shattered;  crops  in  the  surrounding  country  suffered 
severely.  A  violent  wind  accompanied  the  storm,  which  uprooted  trees, 
demolished  chimneys,  and  wrecked  several  buildings.  Freight  cars  at 
the  depot  of  the  Northern  Central  Railroad  were  blown  from  the  track. 
Wichita,  Kans.,  24th,  most  destructive  ever  known  here.  A  section  of 
country  ten  miles  wide  and  twenty  miles  long,  in  the  Arkansas  River 
Valley,  suffered  very  great  damage.  Thousands  of  acres  of  wheat, 
corn,  and  oats  were  cut  down  level  with  the  ground;  even  the  prairie 
grass  was  mown  clean,  while  orchards  and  grape-vines  were  stripped  of 
their  fruit.  Washington,  D.  C,  27th,  most  violent  for  several  years; 
storm  came  up  rapidly,  and  in  the  mpst  threatening  manner  from  the 
northwest,  and  continued  about  forty  minutes.  Hail-stones  about  the 
.size  of  small  hazel-nuts,  hundreds  of  sparrows  killed,  considerable  win- 


350  THE   WEATHER. 

dow-glass  broken,  and  greenhouses  and  vegetable  gardens  injured- 
Storm  was  entirely  confined  within  the  city  limits,  and  passed  from 
N.W.  to  S.E.  Patchogue,  Long  Island,  23d,  very  destructive;  hail- 
stones of  unusually  large  size,  destroying  crops  and  a  large  amount  of 
window-glass.  Andover,  N.  H.,  28th,  great  loss  to  growing  crops  and 
window-glass.  Mill  Creek,  Union  County,  111.,  2d,  ground  covered  to 
a  depth  of  from  2  to  4  inches,  and  drifts  8  to  10  inches  deep  were  re- 
ported from  several  localities.  Wheat,  corn,  and  fruit  crops  entirely 
destroyed  over  a  section  2  miles  wide  by  10  miles  long.  Grant's  Pass, 
Oreg.,  9th,  hail  fell  to  the  depth  of  several  inches,  and  in  many  places 
drifted  3  to  5  feet  deep;  great  destruction  of  property.  Lewiston,  Idaho, 
3d,  3  p.m.,  heaviest  hail-storm  ever  experienced  in  this  section,  some  hail- 
stones measured  6  to  8  inches  in  circumference.  The  destruction  of 
window-glass  was  very  great,  and  in  a  number  of  places  fields  of  grain 
were  cut  down  as  clean  as  if  by  machinery;  direction  of  storm  southwest 
to  northeast;  duration  from  8  to  10  minutes.  Asotin,  Idaho,  3d,  re- 
markably heavy;  large  number  of  sheep  killed;  chickens,  goslings,  cur- 
lews, doves,  and  other  small  birds  were  killed  by  the  hundreds;  storm 
lasted  about  10  minutes.  Anna,  111.,  2d,  4  miles  west  of  station,  most 
violent  storm  ever  known;  fruit,  grain,  and  vegetable  farms  nearly  dev- 
astated; hail  a  foot  deep  in  some  places  on  the  following  morning. 
Lamar,  Mo.,  9th,  hail-stones  size  of  goose  eggs;  windows  broken  in  all 
parts  of  the  town,  and  farm  crops  badly  cut  up.  North  Platte,  Nebr., 
9th,  several  miles  west  of  station,  many  hail-stones  reported  to  be  14^- 
inches  in  circumference,  in  several  places  telegraph  wires  were  broken 
and  roofs  of  houses  punctured.  24th,  all  glass  on  the  north  and  west 
sides  of  buildings  destroyed;  growing  crops  very  badly  damaged.  Rome, 
Henry  County,  Iowa,  12th,  violent  hail  and  wind-storm;  several  build- 
ings unroofed,  and  great  destruction  to  window-glass  and  crops.  Mon- 
teith,  Guthrie  County,  Iowa,  12th,  hail-stones  tearing  shutters  to  pieces 
and  breaking  window-glass;  crops  beaten  into  the  ground,  and  much, 
stock  and  poultry  killed.  At  Adair,  very  heavy  hail;  several  buildings 
unroofed.  At  Casey,  crops  destroyed  and  buildings  badly  damaged. 
At  Mento,  city  hall  unroofed,  windows  broken,  farm  crops  ruined; 
almost  impossible  to  estimate  the  damage.  Avoca,  Pottawattomie 
County,  Iowa,  12th,  5,000  panes  of  glass  broken;  buildings  otherwise 
damaged.  In  surrounding  country  calves,  hogs,  chickens,  and  ducks 
were  killed  by  the  enormous  hail;  cattle  and  horses  were  terribly 
bruised;  hail-stones  size  of  a  man's  fist.  In  Audubon  and  Cass  Coun- 
ties, 12th,  hail-stones  of  remarkable  size,  and  blown  into  drifts  2  and  3 
feet  deep;  growing  crops  almost  obliterated.  Rockingham  County, 
Virginia,  25th,  near  North  Mountain,  hail  fell  to  a  depth  of  6  inches, 
the  stones  being  of  uncommon  size,  and  remaining  on  the  ground  for 
24  hours.  Deadwood,  Dak.,  6th,  during  the  afternoon  hailstones,  size 
of  hen's  eggs,  fell  for  over  two  hours;   one  stone  was  reported  to  have 


i  ill.   u  i.ai  mi;.  ::.~iL 

measured  21  inohea  in  oircumferenoe.  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  L3th,  bail- 
Btonee  from  2  i"  6  inches  in  circumference,  and  some  reported  to  have 
been  5  inches  in  diameter;  20  minutes  after  the  storm  stones  were 
pioked  Hi'  as  large  as  goose-eggs.     Greenhouses  and  gardens  damaged 

severely,  and  many  thousand  panes  of  glass  broken;  severed  storm    i 

experienced.  Anilene,  Cans.,  9th,  continued  for  about  20  minutes, 
causing  great  damage  to  window-glass,  trees,  and  garden  crops;  in  coun- 
try loss  to  crops  very  heavy.  Beloit,  Cans.,  9th,  very  heavy,  breaking 
window-glass  and  destroying  crops.  Solomon  City,  Kans.,  (Jth,  glass  in 
the  north  windows  of  nearly  all  of  the  houses  in  the  city  were  broken; 
hail-stones  as  large  as  walnuts,  and  covering  the  ground  to  a  depth  of 
several  inches.  Chester,  111.,  2d,  hail-stones  nearly  the  size  of  goose- 
eggs,  doing  great  damage  to  gardens,  trees,  and  windows,  and  severely 
injuring  persons  and  stock.  Storm  continued  for  fifteen  minutes. 
Clinton,  111..  2d,  great  damage  to  fruit  and  growing  crops.  Storm  con- 
tinued for  about  ten  minutes.  Rockbridge,  111.,  2d,  hail-stones  14 
inches  in  diameter;  hundreds  of  acres  of  wheat  completely  torn  to- 
pieces,  and  not  worth  harvesting;  fruit  very  badly  damaged.  Walnut 
Grove,  111.,  2d,  over  500  acres  of  growing  wheat  and  young  corn  terribly 
cut  up;  large  amount  of  window-glass  broken.  White  Hall,  111.,  2d, 
most  violent  storm  ever  experienced;  great  destruction  of  wheat,  corn, 
potatoes,  and  fruit;  a  number  of  birds,  chickens,  and  rabbits  were  found 
killed  by  the  hail;  direction  of  storm-path  northwest  to  southeast; 
length  about  seven  miles;  width,  one  mile. 

RELATIVE   HUMIDITY. 

The  percentage  of  mean  relative  humidity  for  the  month  ranges  as 
follows  :  New  England,  from  64  to  90.  Middle  Atlantic  States,  60 
to  82.  South  Atlantic  States,  55  to  83.  East  Gulf  States,  60  to  80.  West 
Gulf  States,  52  to  72.  Ohio  Valley  and  Tennessee,  62  to  77.  Lower 
Lake  region,  66  to  77.  Upper  Lake  region,  69  to  76.  Upper  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  67  to  76.  Missouri  Valley,  66  to  68.  Extreme  North- 
west, 65  to  74.  Northern  Slope,  57  to  66.  Southern  Slope,  29  to  57. 
Rio  Grande  Valley,  52  to  73.  Southern  Plateau,  18  to  25;  Middle  Pla- 
teau, 13  to  27.  Northern  Plateau,  37  to  48.  North  Pacific  coast  region, 
66  to  73.  California,  36  to  77.  High  stations  report  the  following  per- 
centages not  corrected  for  altitudes:  Pike's  Peak,  48;  Santa  Fe,  20; 
Cheyenne,  33;  Denver,  31;  Mount  Washington,  78. 

WINDS. 

The  prevailing  winds  during  the  month  of  June,  1881,  at  Signal 
Service  stations  are  shown  on  the  Chart  by  arrows  which  fly  with  the 
wind.     Over  the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  south  of  the  Ohio, 


352  THE   WEATHER. 

southwest.  Over  the  Lakes,  northerly.  Over  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States  and  New  England,  variable.  From  Texas  northward  to  Mani- 
toba, southeast  and  south.  Over  the  Plateau  regions,  south  to  west. 
Along  the  Pacific  coast  westerly. 

High  winds. — Winds  of  50  miles  per  hour  and  over  were  reported  as 
follows:  On  summit  of  Mount  Washington,  3d,  5th,  6th,  10th,  14th 
to  20th,  27th,  29th;  maximum  velocity,  94  miles,  N.W.,  16th.  On 
summit  of  Pike's  Peak,  76  S.W.,  15th;  North  Platte,  24th,  25th,  28th; 
maximum  velocity,  60  W.,  25th;  Port  Keogh,  60  S.W.,  5th;  Ports^ 
mouth,  60  N.E.,  22d;  Sandusky,  57  N.W.,  29th;  Yankton,  56  W.,  28th; 
Dodge  City,  56  N.W.,  25th;  Thatcher's  Island,  56  N.E.,  10th;  Fort  Bu- 
ford,  55  N.W.,  10th;  Cape  May,  53  W.,  8th;  Stockton,  52  S.E.,  28th; 
Fort  Stevenson,  50  S.E.,  15th;  Delaware  Breakwater,  50  N.W.,  8th; 
Chincoteague,  50  S.W.,  29th;  Morgantown,  50  W.,  29th. 

Local  stortns. — Storms  of  this  character  have  not  been  unusually  fre- 
quent or  severe  during  the  present  month,  although  the  loss  of  life  and 
property  has  been  very  great.  The  most  destructive  were  confined  to 
the  region  known  as  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley,  comprising  the  west- 
ern portions  of  Missouri  and  Iowa  and  the  eastern  portion  of  Kansas  and 
Nebraska.  Several  storms  were  reported  by  the  newspapers  and  others 
as  tornadoes,  but,  upon  examination,  they  proved  to  be  only  very  severe 
hail-storms  or  wind-storms  of  considerable  force,  the  characteristics  of 
a  tornado  proper  not  being  manifested.  The  most  violent  of  that  class 
of  storms,  called  tornadoes,  occurred  on  the  afternoon  of  the  12th,  and 
during  that  portion  of  the  day  the  peculiar  atmospheric  conditions  which 
prevailed  over  the  Lower  Missouri  Valley.  The  area  of  low  baro- 
meter extended  from  the  Upper  Lake  region  southwestward  to  northern 
Texas,  and  thence  northward  to  Manitoba.  Along  the  southeast- 
ern edge  of  this  area  and  northward  to  parallel  40 '  the  winds  from 
.south  to  southwest,  with  temperatures  ranging  from  80°  to  100°. 
Over  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  extending  thence  westward  into  Colorado 
and  Wyoming,  a  belt  of  north  to  northwest  winds  prevailed,  with  tem- 
peratures ranging  from  63°  to  78°.  Confined  to  a  region  of  country 
having  a  width  of  about  500  miles,  a  thermal  difference  of  37°  was  pre- 
sented along  the  line  of  conflict  between  the  opposing  northerly  and 
southerly  winds.  Bounded  by  the  distinctive  features  of  these  atmo- 
spheric currents,  it  is  found  that  Kansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska, 
but  more  particularly  the  two  former,  come  within  the  region  of  vio- 
lent wind-storms  and  tornadoes.  Andrew  County,  Missouri,  12th,  about 
5  p.m.,  violent  tornado  formed  eight  miles  northwest  of  Savannah,  and 
passed  in  an  easterly  direction  several  miles  north  of  the  town.  Its 
course  continued  a  little  north  of  east  until  it  reached  Flag  Springs, 
when  it  bore  still  more  to  the  north,  passing  over  the  village  of  King 
City,  De  Kalb  County,  after  which  its  course  could  not  be  traced  from 
the  imperfect  data  at  hand.     During  its  incipient  stages,  the  path  of 


the  \\  i:\  i  ii  br.  353 

destruction  wasaboul  L60  yards  wide,  increasing  thereafter  to  about  one- 
qnarter  of  a  mile.   The  storm-cloud  was  funnel-shaped,  with  the  smaller 
end  towards  the  earth.     Al  times  it   would  careen   from  side  to  Bide, 
followed  by  an  upward  and  downward  motion  of  the  body  <>t'  the  cloud, 
as  if  drawing  itself  Into  a  sheath.     Along  the  path  of  the  storm  every 
thing  was  swepl  dean;  the  destruction  of  growing  crops  could  not  be 
estimated.     About  80  buildings  were  demolished  and   12  or   L5  persons 
killed.     One  man  was  reported   to  have  lost  80  head  of  cattle,  another 
250  sheep,  and  another  6  bead  of  horses;  other  farmers  lost  heavily  in 
stock,  the  losses  of  this  nature  being  unprecedented.     De  Kalb  County, 
Missouri,  12th,  aboul  5   P.M.,  tornado  formed  several  mils  to  southwest 
of  Window,  and  moved  thence  northeastward,  passing  near  that  town. 
Continuing  its  northeasterly  course,  it  reached  the  village  of  Berlin, 
Gentry    County,    thereafter    disappearing    to    the    northeastward    near 
Grand  River.     Several  persons  were  killed  outright  and  many  seriously 
injured.     The  destruction  of  houses,  barnes,  fences,  and  farming  im- 
plements was  very  great.     Width  of  storm-path  about  200  yards.     Nod- 
away County,   Missouri,  L2th,  between  4  and  5  P.M.,  tornado  formed  in 
vicinity  of  City  Bluffs,  near  the  Nodaway  River,  and  passed  northeast- 
ward to  the  west  of  Hopkins.      Several  persons  were  killed  and  many 
buildings  demolished.     Indiana,  Pa.,  7th,  very  violent  and  destructive 
tornado;  cloud  funnel-shaped,  small  end  toward  the  ground.     Direction 
of  movement  southwest  to  northeast,  passing  over  the  most  thickly  set- 
tled portion  of  Washington,  Wayne,   and   Cherryhill   Townships.     Fif- 
teen buildings  were  destroyed,  and  a  large  amount  of  growing  timber, 
fences,  crops,  etc.     At  some  points,  the  storm  was  not  more  than  100 
yards  wide,  and  at  times  would  appear  to  lift  from  the  ground  and  again 
descend  with   redoubled  fury.     Length   of  storm-path   over  15  miles. 
Loss  of  property  estimated  at  840,000.     Osage  County,  Kansas,  12th, 
about  4  p.m.,  tornado  formed  east  of  Olivet,  near  the  Marius  des  Cygnes 
River,  and  passed  northeastward  over  the  country  lying  to  the  south  of 
Salt  Creek,  and  traversing  portions  of  Olivet,  Mel  vera,  and  Agency  Town- 
ships.    At  Quenemo,    near  the  junction  of   Salt  Creek   and   the  river 
above  named,  many  buildings  were  demolished,  the  debris  being  scat- 
tered for  miles.     Along  the  course  of  the  storm,  cattle  were  lifted  into 
the  air  and  dashed  lifeless  to  the  ground,  articles  of  household  goods 
were  smashed  into  atoms,  and  bedding  and  clothing  whipped  into  rags. 
In  some  cases,  people  were  stripped  of  their  clothing  by  the  force  of  the 
wind,  and  small  objects  were  carried  several  miles.     Five  persons  were 
reported  killed  and  over  20  wounded.     Over  50  buildings  were  totally 
wrecked,  and  together  with  the  loss  to  crops,  fences,  and  orchard.-,  the 
damage  is  estimated  at  $150,000.     Cowley  County,  Kansas,  12th,  about 
4  p.m.,  tornado  formed  to  the  southwestward,  near  the  Arkansas  River, 
a  few  miles  below  Minnescah,   and  passed  thence  northeastward  to  the 
town  of  Floral,  on  Timber  Creek,  where  it  destroyed  28  houses,  killed 
23 


354  THE    WEATHEK. 

3  persons,  and  wounded  22.  The  whole  town  was  nearly  wiped  out  of 
existence.  Where  the  storm-cloud  struck  the  creek,  the  water  was 
sucked  up  and  carried  over  the  adjoining  fields  in  the  path  of  the 
storm.  The  leaves  on  the  trees  were  withered,  as  hy  the  heat  of  fire, 
and  huge  trees  were  pulled  up  by  the  roots  or  twisted  off  by  the  terrible 
force  of  the  wind.  The  cloud  was  in  hue  a  greenish-black,  with  streaks 
of  fire  apparently  darting  through  it.  Its  form  was  funnel-shaped,  with 
the  smaller  end  toward  the  ground.  Its  movement  was  not  altogether 
continuous  and  regular,  but  it  would  gyrate  from  side  to  side,  and  then 
dart  forward  with  renewed  energy.  After  leaving  Floral,  the  storm's 
course  was  still  northeastward,  and  great  destruction  to  crops,  fences, 
and  buildings  was  caused  in  the  neighboring  county.  Length  of  storm- 
path  over  20  miles,  the  width  varying  from  a  few  hundred  feet  to  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  In  many  instances,  the  line  of  destruction  would  be 
very  closely  defined,  for  on  one  side  of  a  road  the  land  might  be  swept 
clean,  while  no  injury  would  be  done  on  the  other  side.  This  storm  is 
considered  the  most  destructive  that  ever  visited  Southern  Kansas. 
Belle  Plaine,  Sumner  County,  Kansas,  12th,  about  4  p.m.,  tornado 
formed  several  miles  to  the  southwest,  near  the  Minnescah  River. 
Course  of  storm-path  northeastward,  crossing  the  Arkansas  Eiver  three 
miles  south  of  Mulvane  Junction.  Cloud  funnel-shaped,  with  the  small 
end  downward,  drawing  everything  inward  and  upward.  During  the 
passage  of  the  cloud,  hail-stones  over  two  inches  in  diameter  fell  in  large 
quantities,  and  a  hot  southerly  wind  prevailed,  which  made  it  difficult 
to  breathe. 

Water  spouts. — On  Chesapeake  Bay,  off  Hooper's  Island,  9th,  during 
the  passage  of  a  severe  squall,  a  large  spout  suddenly  descended,  and, 
catching  a  small  schooner  near  by,  completely  turned  her  over.  Port 
Eads,  La.,  29th,  two  were  observed  at  1.20  p.m.,  over  the  Gulf  to  the 
southeast;  they  formed  under  a  cumulo-stratus  cloud  in  the  shape  of  a 
cone  ;  one  disappeared  before  its  completion  ;  the  other  gradually  elon- 
gated until  it  reached  the  water.  The  upper  portion,  or  cone,  was  of 
the  same  color  as  the  cloud,  and  the  lower  portion  was  of  a  light  gray. 
It  moved  to  the  S.S.E.,  and  at  1.28  p.m.  broke,  leaving  a  ragged  edge, 
which  rose  to  the  cloud.  Fort  Stevenson,  Dakota,  11th,  observed  about 
two  miles  from  post  before  the  approach  of  a  terrific  hail-storm. 

Cloud  burst. — Seven  Star  Springs,  Barry  County,  Mo.,  11th,  broke 
in  the  hills  above  the  town,  the  water  rushing  down,  carrying  away 
houses,  household  goods,  and  animals.     Five  persons  drowned. 

High  tides. — Coney  Island,  10th,  unusually  high,  overflowed  the 
meadows  behind  the  hotels. 

ATMOSPHEEIC    ELECTRICITY. 

TJiunder-storms. — In  the  various  districts  they  were  reported  on  the 
following  dates  :  New  England,  4th  to  7th,  13th  to  15th,  19th  to  21st, 


THE    WKATIM  B.  355 

83d,  86th,  88th,  and  89th.  Middle  Atlantic  States,  1st  to  10th,  13th, 
Nth.  L6th  to  81st,  and  86th  to  30th.  Eastern  Gull  States, 
8d,  nil.  6th  bo  L8th,  and  I  tth  in  30th.  Western  Gull  States,  l-t.  8d, 
4th,  6th  to  LOth,  L3th,  I  tth,  L6th,  L7th,  19th  to  87th,  89th,  30th.  Ohio 
Valley  and  Tennessee,  1st  to  9th,  Kith  to  21st,  23d,  85th  t<>  30th. 
Lower  Lake  region,  1st,  3d,  6th  to  8th,  L3th,  L3th,  L5th  bo  L7th,  80th, 
85th,  87th,  88th.  Upper  Like  region,  1st  to  3d,  5th  to  8th,  Utli  to 
L3th,  L6th,  LStfa  bo  80th.  Extreme  Northwest,  5th  to  13th,  L5th,  16th, 
l'.tth,  86th,  87th.  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  1st,  2d,  4th  to  8th,  10th  to 
21st,  83d,  84th,  86th  to  30th.  Missouri  Valley,  1st  to  12th.  14th,  l.Mh, 
17th,  l'.ith  to  30th.  Northern  Slope,  1st  to  15th,  18th  to  25th,  28th. 
Middle  Slope,  1st  to  12th,  J  4th,  17th,  19th,  21st  to  30th.  Southern 
Slope  1st,  2d,  5th  to  12th,  25th  to  27th,  29th.  Rio  Grande  Valley, 
6th,  8th,  20th,  86th,  89th.  Southern  Plateau,  3d,  5th,  14th  to  16th, 
18th,  24th.  Middle  Plateau,  4th,  10th,  13th.  Northern  Plateau,  1st  to 
3d,  7th  to  10th,  13th,  14th,  18th  to  20th,  23d,  28th.  North  Pacific 
coast  region,  8th.     California,  2d,  3d,  5th,  6th,  14th. 

The  following  items  of  interest  connected  with  the  peculiar  manifes- 
tations of  electricity  during  the  progress  of  thunder-storms  were  ob- 
tained  from  various  sources:  Williamsbridge,  Westchester  County,  N.Y., 
14th,  at  telegraph  office,  where  116  wires  center,  the  electric  current  was 
so  powerful  that  it  drove  every  one  out  of  the  rooms.  The  switch-boards 
were  covered  with  one  sheet  of  fire;  large  balls  of  electricity  leaped 
from  the  instruments  and  shot  out  from  the  pins  and  plugs  at  the  ends 
of  the  wares.  The  manager  of  the  office  was  knocked  down  as  he  ap- 
proached the  switch-board.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  two  boys  were 
instantly  killed  as  they  took  shelter  from  the  storm  under  a  large  tree. 
Not  a  mark  or  bruise  except  a  black  spot  on  the  left  leg  of  one  of 
them  was  found  upon  their  bodies.  The  lightning  followed  down  the 
trunk  in  a  serpentine  manner,  boring  a  ragged  hole  in  the  ground  near 
the  roots.  Wakefield,  N.  Y.,  14th,  house  demolished,  prostrating  the 
inmates,  and  killing  a  horse  standing  in  the  street.  One  of  the  inmates 
was  thrown  violently  to  the  floor,  and  had  a  hole  about  the  size  of  a 
saucer  burned  in  her  dress.  Brockport,  Ind.,  24th,  two  laborers  having 
driven  a  reaping  machine  under  a  tree,  were  struck,  one  of  them  in- 
stantly killed,  while  the  other  had  his  pantaloon  legs  ripped  open  and 
his  shoes  torn  off,  but  no  further  injury.  Areola,  N.  J.,  14th,  ice- 
houses fired  and  destroyed;  one  laborer  was  struck  and  thrown  40  feet. 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  14th,  while  two  persons  were  fishing  in  a  sail  boat 
upon  Newark  Bay  one  of  them  was  killed  instantly,  leaving  the  other 
uninjured.  His  clothing  was  stripped  from  him  and  his  left  boot  ripped 
open  as  if  it  had  been  cut  with  a  knife.  The  lightning  after  leaving 
the  body  tore  a  large  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  boat.  Anne  Arundel 
County,  Md.,  10th,  a  barn  containing  15  or  20  people  was  struck,  kill- 
ing four  persons  and  severly  injuring  several  others.    Two  of  the  victims 


:};,(•,  THE    -WEATHER. 

were  fearfully  burned,  while  the  others  showed  only  a  purple  scar  where 
struck.  Reistertown,  Md.,  10th,  a  young  man  killed  while  working  in 
the  field,  his  companion  standing  very  close  to  him  was  only  knocked 
down,  but  with  no  resulting  injury.  Henrietta,  Tex.,  9th,  two  ladies 
instantly  killed  while  riding  along  in  a  carriage.  Peoria,  111.,  11th,  a 
fanner  while  crossing  the  iron  bridge  over  Kickapoo  River  was  instantly 
killed;  his  son  close  beside  him  was  not  injured.  Hunnewell,  Kan., 
12th,  a  farmer  instantly  killed  while  unsaddling  his  horse  in  the  barn. 
His  clothes  were  completely  torn  from  his  body,  his  watch-chain  melted, 
and  his  face  and  body  badly  mangled.  The  horse  was  killed,  and  one 
end  of  the  barn  torn  out.  Clinton  Valley,  Ohio.  20th,  boy  instantly 
killed  while  riding  horseback.  His  body  bore  no  marks,  but  the  horse 
on  which  he  rode  was  torn  to  pieces.  Jamaica,  X.  Y.,  23d.  a  young  girl 
while  seated  under  a  tree  was  struck  and  knocked  a  distance  of  10  feet, 
but  not  seriously  injured  ;  three  other  persons  near  by  were  fatally  in- 
jured. Detroit,  Mich.,  16th,  a  house  struck,  blackening  the  walls  and 
tearing  off  picture-mouldings.  At  the  marine  hospital  a  40-foot  flag- 
staff situated  on  the  roof  was  shattered  to  within  20  feet  of  the  base. 
where  the  electric  current  was  conducted  down  the  iron  braces,  making 
two  small  sharply  cut  holes  in  the  corrugated  iron  roof.  Ohio,  16th, 
the  most  destructive  electric  storm  ever  known  was  experienced  through- 
out central  and  northern  portions  of  the  State.  Dubuque,  Iowa,  18th, 
a  man  while  seeking  shelter  in  an  ice-house  was  struck,  the  lightning 
scorching  one  of  his  legs  severely  and  tearing  off  his  shoe  and  stocking. 
A  brakeman  leading  two  dogs  within  the  yard  of  the  Illinois  Central 
Railroad  Company  had  both  of  them  killed  while  he  escaped  the  slight- 
est injury.  At  the  Norwegian  Plough  Works  the  lightning  made  such  a 
terrific  display  as  to  drive  all  the  employes  out  of  the  buildings.  At  the 
Illinois  Central  freight  office  balls  of  fire  were  constantly  shooting  from 
the  telephones.  TVarwatosa,  Milwaukee  County,  Wis.,  16th,  during  a 
light  rain  the  lightning  descended  tbe  chimney  of  a  house,  killing  one 
of  the  occupants.  The  room  in  which  the  person  was  killed  had  the 
plastering  torn  from  the  walls;  a  heavy  bedstead  was  jerked  into  the 
middle  of  the  room,  shivered  into  long  pieces,  and  set  on  fire.  A  stove 
was  smashed  to  atoms,  and  crocks,  pans,  and  other  wares  were  broken 
and  twisted  into  all  kinds  of  shapes.  The  other  rooms  of  the  house 
were  not  in  the  least  affected,  and  six  children  sleeping  in  the  mam  part 
were  undisturbed. 

Atmospheric  electricity  interfering  with  telegraphic  communications. 
—Fort  Sill,  6th,  Tth.  9th;  Jacksborough,  7th,  9th;  Stockton,  1st,  oth, 
6th,  8th,  26th,  2 Tth:  Decatur,  9th. 

Auroras. — There  were  no  unusually  brilliant  displays  during  the 
month,  and  no  continuous  observations  on  a  single  date  embracing  a 
considerable  extent  of  territory. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
THE   SEASON-. 

Certain'  disease.-,  and  the  mortality  arising  from  them,  are  so  com- 
monly identified  with  particular  seasons  of  the  year,  as  to  have  long  since 
attracted  the  attention  of  observers  to  the  influence  of  the  seasons  upon 
health  in  general,  insomuch  that  the  four  seasons  in  temperate  lati- 
tudes have  come  to  be  more  or  less  identified  with  the  preponderance  of 
some  diseases,  and  the  absence  of  others  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  a  mat- 
ter of  common  observation.  Moreover,  many  people,  and  particularly 
chronic  invalids,  are  so  sensitive  to  the  influence  of  the  seasons,  that  in 
order  to  maintain  a  comfortable  standard  of  health,  they  are  constrained 
to  avoid  particular  seasons  by  a  change  of  climate.  And  thus  it  has 
come  about  that  the  identification  of  certain  diseases  with  the  season  has 
not  infrequently  led  the  way  to  the  more  permanent  conditions  identified 
with  climate. 

In  England,  especially,  where  the  mortality  returns  have  attained  a 
high  degree  of  accuracy,  more  than  thirty  years  ago  Dr.  Benjamin 
"Ward  Richardson  made  an  analysis  of  the  seasons  in  relation  with  139,318 
cases  occurring  during  the  years  extending  from  1838  to  1853,  from  small- 
pox, measles,  scarlatina,  whooping-cough,  croup,  diarrhoea,  dysentery, 
cholera,  influenza,  ague,  remittent  fever,  typhus,  erysipelas,  quinsy, 
bronchitis,  jaundice,  and  carbuncle. 

"  Out  of  the  139,318  cases  thus  chronicled,  as  occurring  from  the 
above-named  diseases,  and  estimating  the  gross  mortality,  according  to 
the  season,  without  reference  to  particular  years,  the  percentage  of  mor- 
tality in  the  different  quarters  ran  as  follows: 

In  January,  February,  and  March,    ...         25  per  cent 

April,  May.  and  June,  .         .         .         .  .     25       " 

July,  August,  and  September,  ....         14       " 

October,  November,  and  December,       .         .  .     28       " 

"  Having  learned  thus  much,  I  set  about  ascertaining,  on  the  same 
large  scale,  whether  the  fatal  diseases  were  in  any  way  special  to  the  sea- 
sons.    The  answer  to  the  inquiry  was  to  this  effect: 

"  Whooping-cough,  croup,  small-pox,  and  bronchitis  were  most  com- 
mon in  the  first  quarter. 


THE    SEASONS. 

1st  Quar. 

2d  Quar. 

3d  Quar. 

4th  Quar. 

27,352 

24,551 

22,824 

25,272 

.     82,704 

27,825 

17,116 

22,354 

27,523 

25,100 

19,919 

27,456 

.     36,793 

20,301 

10,327 

32,570 

10,196 

10,717 

58,519 

20,567 

15,638 

13,541 

42,460 

28,340 

24,877 

24,030 

26,967 

24,109 

358 


Small-pox, 
Whooping-cough,     . 
Croup, 
Bronchitis, 

"  Pneumonia,  I  believe,  might  very  properly  have  been  added  here. 
'  In  the  second  quarter  quinsy  only  stood  ahead.     Thus: 

1st  Quar.       2d  Quar.        3d  Quar.       4th  Quar. 
Quinsy 21,762        30,595        21,231        26,410 

"  In  the  third  quarter,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  jaundice  took  the 
lead. 

1st  Quar.       2d  Quar.        3d  Quar.       4th  Quar. 
Diarrhoea, 
Dysentery, 
Jaundice, 

"In  this  third  quarter,  Asiatic  cholera,  when  epidemic,  assumes  a 
greater  mortality  and  prevalence  than  at  any  other  season. 

"In  the  fourth  quarter,  influenza,  ague,  remittent  fever,  measles, 
erysipelas,  and  carbuncle  took  the  lead. 

1st  Quar.  2d  Quar.  3d  Quar.  4th  Quar. 

Influenza, 23,539  12,  171  4,502  59,785 

Ague 22,857  24,285  20,006  32,851 

Remittent  le*er,             .         .         .  23,077  26,315  23,481  27,125 

Typhus,              25,740  24,825  22,919  26,521 

Scarlet  fever,         ....  20,809  18,978  26,234  33.976 

Measles, 19,864  21,466  26,234  32,434 

Erysipelas 25,144  23,444  22,337  29,174 

Carbuncle, 26,771  19,685  24,409  29,133 

"  In  the  first  quarter  the  diseases  of  the  respiratory  system — croup, 
whooping-cough,  and  bronchitis — stand  forth  prominently,  while  in  the 
fourth  quarter  a  large  family  of  diseases  of  the  febrile  or  inflammatory 
order  take  the  first  position. 

"It  is  not  by  mere  accident  that  these  divisions  occur;  they  are  the 
effects  of  fixed,  though  nearly  unknown,  physical  or  chemical  laws. 

"It  is  worthy  of  special  remark  that  the  fourth  quarter  of  the  year  is 
that  in  which  the  number  of  diseases  causing  a  prominent  mortality  is, 
as  a  general  rule,  greatest,  and  that  next  to  it  is  the  quarter  commenc- 
ing with  the  New  Year.  As  the  cold  of  winter  more  decidedly  sets  in, 
we  begin  to  see  developed,  almost  of  necessity,  an  increase  of  death  from 
pulmonary  diseases,  and  of  low  fever  amongst  the  poor,  if  provisions  be- 
come high  in  price  or  deficient  in  quantity  or  quality/'1 
In  the  same  work  the  author  has  also  summarized:— 

'"  The  Field  of  Disease,"  p.  530-523. 


mi    -i  vsons.  :;.")'.» 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  WEATHER  ON  MORTALITY  FROM  DIFFERENT 
DISEASES  SlND  AT  DIFFERENT  AGES  IN  LONDON  AND  NEW 
STORK. 

BY  ALKXANDER  BUCHAN,  F.R.S.E.,  AND   ARTHUR   MITCHELL,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.E. 
(From  the  Journals  <>f  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  1875-1878.) 

PERIODS    OF    MORTALITY    IN     VARIOUS    CONDITION'S    OF    DISEASE. 

Irritation.     Teething. 

London. — Maximum. — January  to  middle  of  June  and  end  of  July;  ab- 
solute, March,  April. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  June  to  end  of  December,  with  excep- 
tion of  last  week  in  July;  absolute,  October,  November. 

Dropsy. 

London. — Maximum. — November  to  April;  absolute,  February,  March. 
Minimum. — June  to  October;  absolute,  July,  August. 

Atrophy. 
London. — Maximum. — July  to  September;  absolute,  August. 

Minimum. — October  to  end  of  June;  absolute,  May,  June. 
Curve  is  allied  to  that  for  tabes,  mesenteric  and  bowel  dis- 
eases. 

Mortification. 
London. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  December  to  beginning  of   May; 
absolute,  March,  April. 
Minimum. — June    to    beginning    of     December;     absolute, 
August  and  September. 

Senile  Decay  ;   Old  Age. 
London. — Maximum. — Close  of  November  to  end   of   April;  absolute, 
January. 
Minimum. — May  to  close  of  November;  absolute,  July  to  Oc- 
tober. 
Very  rapid  rise  in  this  curve  in  November. 

PEKIODS   OF   MORTALITY   IN    DISEASES    RUNNING    A  DEFINITE  COURSE  IN 
BOTH   SEXES   AND    ALL   AGES. 
LONDON  AND  NEW  YORK. 

Small-Pox. 
London. — Maximum. — Last  week  of  May. 

Minimum. — Last  week  of  September. 

Above  the  average  from  Christmas  to  end  of  June. 


360  THE   SEASONS. 

New  York. — Maximum. — May. 

Minimum. — September. 

Above  the  average  from  January  to  July. 

Measles. 
London. — Maximum. — Larger,  November,  December,  January;  smaller, 
May  and  June. 
Minimum. — Larger,  August,  September,    October;    smaller, 
February,  March. 
New   York. — Maximum. — Larger,  July;  smaller,  February. 
Minimum. — Larger,  September;  smaller,  April 

Scarlet  Fever. 
London. — Maximum. — September  to  end  of  year. 
Minimum. — February  to  end  of  July 
Highest  death-rate  through  October  and  November. 
New  York. — Maximum. — December  to  June;  absolute,  April. 

Minimum. — July  to  November;  absolute,  September. 

Typhus. 
London. — Maximum. — January  to  beginning  of  May. 

Minimum. — Middle  of  May  to  end  of  September.  Except 
hot  season  of  July  and  beginning  of  August,  typhus  is  be- 
low average  from  middle  of  May  to  end  of  September. 

Typhoid  Fever. 
London. — Maximum. — October  and  November. 

Minimum. — Middle  of  May  to  end  of  June. 
Falls  below  average  last  week  of   February;  begins  to   rise 
gradually  in  July. 
New  York. — Maximum. — August  to  November;  absolute,  September. 
Minimum. — Nearly  equal  over  other  months  of  the  year. 

Remittent  Fever. 
London. — Maximum. — Larger,  April   to  June;  smaller,  middle  of  De- 
cember. 
Minimum. — September. 

Diarrhoea. 
London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  July  to  beginning  of  August. 
Minimum. — Absolute,  March  and  April. 

Maximum  commences  slowly  in  June;  after  August  decreases 
(at  a  slower  rate  than  it  rose)  until  December. 
New  York. — Maximum. — July  and  August. 

Minimum. — December,  Januar}',  February,    and  March. 
Death-rate  begins  to  increase  in  April,  two  months  earlier 
than  in  London. 


I  111    -I  \.-.-\-'. 


861 


Simple  Cholera. 

London. — Maximum.— July  and  August. 
Minimum.— March  and  April. 

M<il iij mi  nl  Cholera. 

London. — Maximum. — September. 

Minimum. — April  and  May. 

Mortality  begins  to  rise  in  June,  rises  rapidly  in  July,  main- 
tains high  ami  steady  position  in  August,  inns  up  to  abso- 
lute maximum  in  September,  and  then  rapidly  falls. 

Diphtheria. 

London. — Maximum. — September  to  end  of  the  year. 

Minimum. — Middle  of  March  to  beginning  of  September. 
Deaths  remain  above  the  average  from  September  to  the  begin- 
ning of  March. 
New  York. — Maximum. — December. 
Minimum. — August. 

Deaths  above  average  from  October  to  February;  below  it 
during  the  rest  of  the  year. 

Whooping-cough. 
London. — Maximum. — February,  March,  and  first  half  of  April. 
Minimum. — September  and  October. 

Death-rate  above  average  from  middle  of  December  to  begin- 
ning of  June. 
New  York. — Maximum. — Larger,  September;  smaller,  February. 
Minimum. — Larger,  November;  smaller,  June. 
The  two  maxima  occur  from  August  to  September,  and 

from  February  to  April. 
The  two  minima  are  from  October  to  January,  and  from 
May  to  July. 

Lnjluenza. 
London. — Maximum. — November,  December  and  January,  March  and 
April. 
Minimum. — Other  months  of  the  year. 

Owing  to  the  rarity  of  epidemics  and  the  suddenness  with 
which  the  disease  appears  and  disappears,  this  cannot  be  ac- 
cepted as  the  true  curve  of  influenza. 

Erysipelas. 
London. — Maximum. — November. 

Minimum. — Middle  of  June  to  middle  of  September. 
Deaths  from  erysipelas  are  above  the  average  from  the  middle 
of  September  to  end  of   March;  below  for  the  rest  of  the 
▼ear. 


362  THE    SEASONS. 

Puerperal  Fever. 
London. — Maximum. — November  to  March. 

Minimum. — From  middle  of  June  to  4th  week  of  September. 
The  curve  of  mortality  tallies  closely  with  that  for  erysipelas. 

Hydrophobia. 
London. — Maximum. — June.  July,  August,  September,  December-  ab- 
solute, December. 
Minimum. — February,  March,  April,  May. 
Calculation  is  based  on  fifty-six  deaths  in  thirty  years,  twenty- 
three  of  which  occurred  in  1865-6?. 

Fevers  in  General. 
London. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  September  to  end  of  January. 
Minimum. — From  April  to  August. 

This  curve  has  a  well-marked  character,  though  the  departure 
from  the  average  is  never  great. 

PEEIODS     OF     MORTALITY     IX     GENERAL     DISEASES    OF    CONSTITUTIONAL 
TYPE,    BOTH    SEXES    AND    ALL    AGES. 

Rheumatism. 

London. — Maximum. — End  of  Xovember  and  beginning  of  December. 
Minimum. — August  and  beginning  of  September. 
The  large  Xovember-December  maximum  is  j)rolonged,  but 
in  a  diminished  form,  to  the  spring  months. 

Gout. 
London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  March  to  end  of  April. 

Minimum. — Beginning  of  June  to  end  of  year;  absolute,  Sep- 
tember. 
A  large  increase  takes  place  in  last  week  in  year.     Another  in 
middle  of  March  ushering  in  annual  maximum. 

Cancer  and  Cancrum  Oris. 

London. — Maximum. — Xone. 
Minimum. — Xone. 

Scrofula. 
London. — Maximum. — Larger,  middle  of  April  to  first  week  of  August; 
smaller,  in  October. 
Minimum. — January,  February,   September,  Xovember,  De- 
cember. 

Mesenteric  Disease  and  Scrofula. 
London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  July  to  middle  of  September. 

Minimum. — End  of  December  to  beginning  of  February. 
The  mortality  follows  curve  of  temperature  very  closely. 


i  ill     BEAB0N8. 

New  York. — Maximum.- — Inly.  August,  and  September. 

Miiiiiiiuin.     December   t<>  early   part  of  June;    absolute, 
December  and  January. 

Diabetes. 

London.  —  Maximum. — None. 

Minimum. — Nunc 

Purpura  and  Scurvy. 

London. — Maximum. — March  to  July. 

Minimum. — December  to  beginning  of  January. 

PERIODS   OF    MORTALITY    OF    LOCAL    DISEASES    IN     BOTH    SEXES    AND    ALL 

AGES. 

DISEASES  OF  THE   DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM. 

Thrush. 

London. — Maximum. — Last  week  in  July  to  third  in  August. 

Minimum. — For  the  rest  of  the  year;  absolute  in  April  and 

May. 
The  °,urve  is  identical  in  chief  features  with  that  of  bowel 

complaints. 

C ynanche- Quinsy ;  Tonsillitis. 

London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  October  to  end  of  March;  absolute, 
end  of  December  and  beginning  of  January. 
Minimum. — August  and  beginning  of  October. 
Maximum  period  is  attended  with  a  fall  during  February. 

Gastritis, 

London. — Maximum. — None. 
Minimum. — None. 

Enteritis. 

London. — Maximum. — End  of  June  to  beginning  of  October;  absolute, 
first  week  in  August. 
Minimum. — January,  February,  March,  April,  May,  Novem- 
ber, December. 

Dysentery. 

London. — Maximum. — June  to   November;  absolute,    second   week  in 
September. 
Minimum. — April  and  May. 
From  November  to  June,  death-rate  under  the  average. 


364  TIIK    REASONS. 

Intussusception. 
London. — Maximum. — March,   August,    December,    and    first   half   of 
January. 
Minimum. — End  of  May  and  beginning  of  June. 
Below  average  from  May  to  middle  of  November. 

DISEASES  OF    THE   HEART   AND  CIRCULATION. 

Pericarditis. 
London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  October  to  middle  of  May;  absolute 
November. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  June  to  middle  of  September. 
Cu  ve  resembles  that  for  rheumatism. 

Heart  Disease  Generally. 
London. — Maximum. — November  to  March;    absolute,   December  and 
January. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  April  to  middle  of  November;  absolute, 
middle  of  August  to  middle  of  September. 
New  York. — Maximum. — November  to  May,  with  fall  in  February;  ab- 
solute, December  and  January. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  June  to  middle  of  October. 
Curves  for  London  and  New  York  correspond  closely. 

♦ 

RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 

Croup. 
London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  November  to  end  of  April;  absolute, 
February  and  March. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  May  to  end  of  September;  absolute, 

middle  of  June  to  middle  of  August. 
Absolute  maximum  is  in  early  spring;  absolute  minimum  in 
middle  of  summer. 
New  York. — Maximum. — From  October  to  April;  absolute,  November 
and  December. 
Minimum. — May   to   September;  absolute,  July  and  Au- 
gust. 
The  curves  for  London  and  New  York  essentially  agree. 

Laryngitis. 
London. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  December  to  end  of  May;  absolute, 
last  three  weeks  of  March. 
Minimum. — June   to   November;  absolute,    second    week  in 

September. 
Sharp  fall  in  January  in  maximum. 


I  111.    B]   L80NB.  365 

Bronchitis. 
London. — Maximum. — November  to  March;  absolute,  second   week  in 
January. 
Minimum.— April  to  October;  absolute,  August. 

Above  the  average  from  November  to  April;   below  from  May 
to  October. 
New    York-. — Maximum. — November    to    March;    absolute,    middle    of 
March. 
Minimum. — June  to  middle  of  November;  absolute,  first 

week  in  August. 
The  number  of  deaths  from  bronchitis  in  New  York  is  only 
one-twentieth  of  the  whole  deaths,  wiiile  in  London  it  is 
one-eighth  of  the  whole. 

Asthma. 

London. — Maximum. — From  November  to  April;  absolute,  second  week 
in  January. 
Minimum. — The  beginning  of  May  to  end  of  October;  abso- 
lute, August. 

•   Pneumonia. 

London. — Maximum. — November  to  April;  absolute,  December. 

Minimum. — Beginning  of  May  to  end  of  October;  absolute, 

August. 
The  curve  generally  the  same  as  for  bronchitis,  but  absolute 
maximum  earlier. 
Neiv  York. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  November  to  middle  of  May; 
absolute  maximum,  March. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  May  to  beginning  of  November;  ab- 
solute, July  and  August. 

Phthisis. 

London. — Maximum. — January  to  middle  of  June,  and  middle  of  No- 
vember to  middle  of  December;  absolute,  middle  of  March. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  July  to  middle  of  November;  absolute, 

fourth  week  of  September. 
The  deaths  from  this  disease  are  nearly  one-eighth  of  all  the 
deaths  that  occur. 
New  York. — Maximum. — Middle  of  December  to  middle  of  May;  abso- 
lute, March. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  May  to  middle  of  December;  abso- 
lute, June. 
The  deaths  from  this  disease  in  New  York  are  greater  than 
in  London,  viz.,  one-seventh  of  the  whole. 


366  THE    SEASONS. 

Pleurisy. 
London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  November  to  second  week  of  June; 
absolute,  December  and  January. 
Minimum. — Beginning  of  July  to  end  of  October;  absolute, 

July  and  August. 
The  curve  is  subject  to  numerous  fluctuations,  and  resembles 
curve  for  rheumatism  and  pericarditis   rather  than  bron- 
chitis, pneumonia,  or  asthma. 

Lung  Disease  Generally. 
London. — Maximum. — From  beginning  of   November  to  end   of  May; 
absolute,  December  and  January. 
Miftimum. — June  to  November;  absolute,  July  and  August. 
This  group  includes  all  diseases  of  the  lungs  not  already  speci- 
fied. 

DISEASES  OF   THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Cephalitis. 
London. — Maximum. — From  beginning  of  February  to  end  of  July;  ab- 
solute, beginning  of  April. 
Minimum. — From  beginning  of  September  to  January;  abso- 
lute, September,  October  and  November. 
Curve  fluctuates  considerably. 
New  York. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  February  to  end  of  August;  ab- 
solute, July. 
Minimum. — Beginning  of  September  to  beginning  of  Feb- 
ruary; absolute,  November. 

Hydrocephalus. 
London. — Maximum. — From  second  week  in  February  to  beginning  of 
August;  absolute,  March  and  April. 
Minimum. — Second  week  in  August  to  beginning  of  Febru- 
ary; absolute,  last  week  in  October. 
Mortality  shows  secondary  increase  in  July  as   a   constant 
feature. 
New  York. — Maximum. — January  to  beginning  of  August;    absolute, 
April  and  July. 
Minimum. — Second  week  in  August  to  first  in  January; 
absolute,  October,  November. 

Apoplexy. 
London. — Maximum. — Middle  of  November  to  middle  of  April;  abso- 
lute, December,  January. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  April  to  middle  of  November,  with  a 
rise  in  the  last  week  in  June;  absolute,  third  week  of  July 
to  beginning  of  September. 


•mi.   -i   L80N8.  367 

New  Fork. — Maximum. —  Beginning  of  December  to  end  of  May;  abso- 
lute, March. 
Minimum.  —  Beginning  of  June  to  end  of  November;  ab- 
solute, July,  August,  September. 

I'<i  ni  lys  is. 

London — Maximum. — Middle  of  November  to  end  of  April;  absolute, 
end  of  January. 

Minimum. — Beginning  of  May  to  middle  of  November;  abso- 
lute, third  week  iii  September. 

Differs  from  apoplexy  in  having  maximum  fatality  in  mid- 
winter. 

Epilepsy. 
London. — Maximum. — Last  week  of  December  to  third  week  of  April; 
absolute,  third  week  of  March,  first  week  of  April. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  July  to  first  week  of  September;  abso- 
lute, last  week  in  August. 

Convulsions. 
London. — Maximum. — December  to  end  of  April;  absolute,   February 
and  March. 
Minimum. — Beginning  of  May  to  middle  of  November,  with 
a  small  secondary  maximum  in  July;  absolute  minimum  in 
September,  October. 
Neio  York. — Maximum. — June,  Ju.y  and  August;  absolute,  July. 

Minimum. — End  of  September  to  end  of  December;  abso- 
lute, November,  December. 
Slight  maximum  in  July  in  London  is  much  exaggerated 
in  New  York  curve. 

Insanity. 
London. — Maximum. — December,  January,  June,  March,  April;  abso- 
lute, December  and  January. 
Minimum. — Beginning  of  July  to  November;  absolute,  Sep- 
tember, October. 
The  curve  is  very  irregular. 

All  Nervous  Diseases. 
London. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  December  to  close  of  April;  abso- 
lute, March,  April. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  May  to  close  of  November;  absolute, 
September,  October. 
New  York. — Maximum. — February  to  end  of  May  slight,  and  close  of 
June,  July  to  middle  of  August;  absolute,  July. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  August  to  middle  of  January;  ab- 
solute, November. 


368  THE    SEASONS. 

Curve  differs  in  New  York  from  London  owing  to  great 
maximum  in  July  from  sunstroke. 

Brain  Diseases. 
London. — Maximum. — From  beginning  of  December  to  end  of  April, 
witb  slight  increases  in  July;  absolute,  March. 
Minimum. — From  end  of  July  to  end  of  November;  absolute, 

September,  October. 
Curve  almost  identical  with  that  for  epilepsy.     Includes  all 
brain  affections,   except  convulsions,   epilepsy,  paralysis, 
apoplexy,  cephalitis,  insanity. 

DISEASES  OP  THE  ABSORBENT   AND  GLANDULAR  SYSTEM. 

Hepatitis. 
London. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  May  to  end  of  September;  absolute, 
August. 
Minimum. — October  to  end  of  April;  absolute,  December, 
January. 

Jaundice. 

London.— Maximum. — March  slight,  June,  with  a  fall  in  July;  through 
July,  August,  September;  absolute,  August. 

Minimum. — November  to  June,  with  slight  rise  above  the 
average  in  February,  March,  April;  absolute,  December, 
January,  February. 

Curve  much  resembles  that  of  hepatitis. 

Briglifs  Disease  of  Kidney. 
London. — Maximum. — October  to  May;  absolute,  February,  March,  with 
a  dip  in  December. 
Minimum. — Middle  of  May  to  end  of  September;  absolute, 
August,  September. 

Kidney  Disease  {General). 
London. — Maximum. — End   of   November  to   end    of  April;  absolute, 
December,  January,  and  April. 
Minimum. — Middle   of   May  to   September;  absolute,  June, 
August. 

DISEASES  OF    THE  MEMBRANOUS  SYSTEM. 

Skin  Disease. 
London. — Maximum. — October  to  middle  of  January;  absolute,  Novem- 
ber. 
Minimum. — End  of  May  to  beginning  of  September;  absolute, 

June. 
This  curve  comprehends  all  skin  diseases,  except  phlegmon 
and  ulcer. 


Tin;   REABOKB.  ;',;''' 

DISEASES   FROM   NATURAL   ACCIDENTS. 

Childbirth.     (Mother.) 

London. — Maximum. — Second  week  of  October  to  end  of  March;  abso- 
lute, December,  January. 
Minimum. — May,   June,   July,   August;    absolute,   June  to 
August.     . 

Premature  Birth. 
London. — Maximum. — January,    February,    May,   July,   August,    De- 
cember. 
Minimum. — During  remaining  months. 
Curve  shows   little  variation  from  the  average  through  the 

year. 

Privation. 

London. — Maximum.— December  to  middle  of  April. 

Minimum. — Middle  of  April  to  end  of  November. 
Curve  allied  to  that  of  diseases  of  respiratory  organs. 

Want  of  Breast  Milk. 

London. — Maximum. — July,  August,  and   September;  absolute,    July; 
August. 
Minimum. — October  to  end  of  June;  absolute,  May. 
This  curve  is  allied  to  that  from  diseases  of  abdominal  organs. 

Alcohol  Diseases  and  Delirium  Tremens. 

London. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  May  to  end  of  September;  absolute, 
July.  * 

Minimum. — Beginning  of  October  to  beginning  of  May,  with 
rise  to  the  average  in  October,  and  slightly  above  the  aver- 
age in  first  week  of  new  year;  absolute,  January,  February, 
March,  December. 

The  curve  for  delirium  tremens  stands  alone,  resembles  no 
other  curve,  and  is  steady. 

Suicide. 

London. — Maximum. — Latter  part  of  March  to  latter  part  of  August, 
absolute,  end  of  June. 
Minimum. — End  of  August  to  March;  absolute,  beginning  of 
February. 
Neiv  York. — Maximum. — Beginning  of  April  to  end  of  September;  ab- 
solute, May. 
Minimum. — Beginning  of  October  to  beginning  of  April; 

absolute,  February. 
Both  curves  have  the  maximum  period  in  spring  and  early 

summer. 
24 


CHAPTER    XXL. 

THE    RELATIONS    OF    CLIMATOLOGY    TO    LIFE    IN- 
SURANCE. 

About  a  dozen  years  ago,  under  the  auspices  of  the  "  Chamber  of  Life 
Insurance,"  representing  thirty  American  Life  Offices,  a  "  Collection  of 
the  Statistics  of  Mortality  Experience,  classifying,  arranging,  and 
tabulating  them  for  practical  use,"  was  begun  and  after  eight  years  com- 
pleted in  the  form  now  before  us.1 

The  diseases  or  causes  of  death  are  returned  by  twenty-seven  of  the 
thirty  companies,  including  the  general  collection,  and  aggregate  37,624; 
of  which  35,442  were  of  males,  and  2,182  of  females.  There  were  also 
§,919  deaths  additional,  not  specifying  diseases.  160  diseases  are 
enumerated,  and  divided  into  seven  classes: 

Diseases  and  Deaths  in  Twenty-seven  Life  Insurance  Companies  from 
their  organization  to  the  year  1874. 

diseases.  Males.       Females.       Totals.       %  of  Total. 

All  Causes 35,442        2,182        37,664        100.00 

Zymotic  Diseases, 

Constitutional  Diseases, 

Nervous  Diseases, 

Circulatory  Diseases, 

Respiratory  Diseases, 

Digestive  Diseases,  •       .        .        .  3,344  273  3,617  9.61 

Miscellaneous  Diseases,     .        .        .      5,704  468         6,172  16.42 

The  principal  or  leading  diseases  in  order  are  typhoid  fever — which, 
appears  to  have  been  quite  uniformly  distributed — 5.99  per  cent;  other 
fevers,  4.35;  consumption,  18.31;  apoplexy,  4.70;  paralysis  and  disease 
of  brain,  4.34;  heart  disease,  3.61;  pneumonia,  7.68;  accidents  and  in- 
juries, 7.21  per  cent  of  all.  Consumption,  it  is  remarked,  occurred  at 
nearly  uniform  rates  in  all  the  companies,  18.31  per  cent;  and  when  in- 
creased, as  it  probably  should  be,  by  one-thirteenth  of  the  deaths  by 

1  "System  and  Tables  of  Life  Insurances.  A  Treatise  developed  from  the 
Experience  and  Records  of  Thirty  American  Life  Offices,  under  the  direction  of 
a  Committee  of  Actuaries."  By  Levi  W.  Meech,  Actuary  in  Charge.  4to, 
pp.  553.     Published  by  subscription.     1881. 


6,356 

303 

6,659 

17.70 

8,175 

548 

8,723 

23.19 

5,106 

193 

5,299 

14.08 

1.986 

106 

2,092 

5.56 

4,771 

291 

5,062 

- 13.45 

Tin:    RELATIONS  OP  CLIMATOLOGY    TO    LIFE    iv-i  i:\vi.  :I71 

pneumonia  (ohronic  cases),  and  by  deaths  registered  from  «- 1 1 »  . - .  —  of 
lungs,  hemorrhage  of  lungs,  and  disease  of  lungs,  becomes  20. 67  per 
cent,  or  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  whole  mortality. 

Another  table  shows  that  the  effect  of  medical  selection  is  exhausted, 
and  the  average  mortality  of  consumptive  cases  reached  in  the  third  year 
of  duration  of  the  insurance.  The  largest  mortality  by  consumption 
occurs  between  the  ages  of  20  and  30  years.  But  after  this  period,  the 
proportion  of  consumptive  deaths  of  males  bears  a  twofold  aspect.  That 
is,  when  compared  with  the  number  of  living  exposed,  it  slowly  decreases 
to  a  minimum  rate  between  50  and  60  years,  and  then  gradually  rises 
again,  with  a  heavy  mortality  all  the  while  in  every  period  of  age. 

Ratio  of  Consumptive  Deaths  to  10,000  Living  at  each  Age. 

Age,    .     .     .     Under  20,  20-30,  30-40,  40-50,  50-60,  60-70,  70-80,  all  ages 
Ratio,       .     .  12.0         22.7     19.6.     17.4      15.8      17.6      19.1         18.6 

But  when  compared  with  the  total  contemporary  deaths,  the  propor- 
tion from  consumption  continually  decreases,  as  the  complementary  pro- 
portion from  other  causes  increases  above  the  age  of  30  years. 

Passing  now  to  the  climatic  distribution,  we  observe  that  north  of 
latitude  36.30°  the  deaths  from  consumption  are  18.7  per  cent  of  the  total 
deaths  for  male  life,  and  19.3  for  females,  while  south  of  36.30,  the  per- 
centages are  12.3  and  9.0  respectively.  The  apparent  deficiency  from 
consumption  in  the  latter  proceeds  only  from  comparison  with  a  larger 
total,  including  an  excess  from  malarial  and  other  diseases. 

Compared  with  the  United  States  Census  for  1870,  the  percentage  of 
consumptive  deaths,  18.3  in  a  total  of  100  deaths  insured,  is  less  than  the 
result  of  the  Census,  which  is  represented  by  26.2  for  males,  and  29.7 
for  females.  Thus  the  rejection  of  lives  uninsurable  from  incipient  con- 
sumption is  manifest. 

In  proceeding  towards  the  tropical  regions,  the  ratio  of  deaths  by  con- 
sumption to  those  from  other  diseases  gradually  diminishes.  The  de- 
crease, however,  is  not  from  absolute  decrease  of  consumptive  deaths, 
but  entirely  from  increased  mortality  from  other  causes. 

The  practical  question,  What  part  of  the  United  States  is  most  favor- 
able to  consumptive  invalids,  can  now  be  satisfactorily  answered,  so  far 
as  average  yearly  results  are  concerned,  from  the  following  interesting 
table: 


372 


THE    RELATIONS    OF    CLIMATOLOGY    TO    LIFE    INSURANCE. 


Proportional  Deaths  and  Diseases  to  10,000  Males  living  in  each 

Group  of  States. 


Group  o£  States. 

*I. 

II. 

HI. 

IV. 

v. 

VI. 

VII. 

Mean 
Group. 

Groups. 

105.3 

97.7 

107.1 

104.5 

130.5 

170.5 

112.2 

*I. 

Summary. 

New  England. 

17.6 

18.5 

16.6 

18.7 

27.5 

48.5 

15.9 

23.3 

New  York. 

Constitutional . . . 

26.4 

21.4 

27.9 

23.0 

27.3 

26.3 

22.1 

24.9 

Nervous 

15.4 

11.5 

15.4 

14.4 

20.1 

22.3 

18.4 

16.8 

II. 

Circulatory 

6.6 

4.4 

7.3 

4.6 

6.7 

6.8 

9.2 

6.5 

Northwest. 

13.3 

14.6 

12.1 

16.6 

18.1 

21.5 

14.6 

15.8 

Michigan. 

Digestive 

8.6 

10.0 

11.2 

11.2 

11.9 

22.0 

9.1 

12.0 

Wisconsin. 

Miscellaneous 

17.4 

17.3 

16.6 

16.0 

18.9 

23.2 

22.9 

18.9 

Minnesota. 
Nebraska. 

Zymotic. 

Typhoid,  typhus . 

7.6 

8.5 

6.8 

6.7 

6.9 

4.8 

5.2 

6.6 

III. 

Malarial  fever. . . 

1.7 

2.3 

1.8 

3.3 

3.8 

11.8 

1.9 

3.8 

1.0 

1.3 

1.0 

1.3 

1.3 

1.5 

2.2 

1.4 

New  Jersey. 

1.7 

1.4 

.9 

1.4 

3.6 

5.8 

1.5 

2.3 

Pennsylvania. 

.9 

.7 

1.0 

.8 

1.6 

3.6 

.2 

1.3 

Cholera 

.9 
.3 

.8 
.3 

1.1 
.3 

2.0 
.4 

3.5 

.5 

2.4 
.3 

.9 
.6 

1.7 
.4 

IV. 

Alcoholism 

Other  zymotic.  . . 

3.6 

3.2 

3.7 

2.8 

6.3 

18.2 

3.4 

5.9 

Ohio. 
Indiana. 

Constitutional. 

Illinois. 

1.8 

1.6 

2.6 

1.9 

2.2 

2.2 

1.9 

2.0 

Iowa. 

2.1 

1.5 

2.1 

1.6 

2.2 

1.1 

1.9 

1.8 

Kansas. 

Consumption 

20.8 

16.9 

22.2 

18.5 

21.5 

21.0 

16.9 

19.7 

Other  constitut'al 

1.7 

1.4 

1.0 

1.0 

1.4 

2.0 

1.4 

1.4 

V. 

Nervous. 

Delaware. 

Apoplexy 

5.2 

3.8 

5.0 

4.2 

7.2 

8.2 

6.8 

5.8 

Maryland. 

Congestion       o  f 

1.5 

1.5 

2.1 

2.5 

2.9 

4.9 

1.7 

2.4 

Dist.  Columbia 

brain. 

Virginia. 

Paralysis,  soften- 

7.2 

5.2 

6.5 

6.2 

7.8 

7.5 

7.3 

6.8 

Kentucky. 

ing  of  brain. 

Missouri. 

Epilepsy  and  con- 

.3 

.3 

.6 

.4 

.5 

.7 

1.5 

.6 

vulsion. 

VI. 

Other  nervous  . . . 

1.2 

.7 

1.2 

1.1 

1.7 

1.0 

1.1 

1.1 

South  of  32.30° 

Circulatory. 

North  Carolina. 

Diseases  of  heart. 

6.1 

4.1 

7.1 

4.4 

6.3 

6.6 

7.4 

6.0 

South  Carolina. 

Other  circulatory 

.5 

.3 

.2 

.2 

.4 

.2 

1.8 

.5 

Tennessee. 
Georgia. 

Respiratory. 

Florida. 

Pneumonia 

7.3 

8.5 

6.6 

9.8 

10.8 

12.6 

9.0 

9.2 

Alabama. 

Congesti  on      of 

1.8 

1.7 

1.2 

1.7 

2.2 

2.2 

.9 

1.7 

Mississippi. 

lungs. 

Arkansas. 

Bronchitis       and 

1.8 

2.0 

1.5 

2.0 

1.8 

3.4 

2.2 

2.1 

Louisiana. 

pleurisy. 

• 

Texas. 

Abscess,    hemor- 

1.9 

2.0 

2.0 

2.4 

2.4 

1.9 

1.8 

2.1 

rhage  of  lungs. 

VII. 

Other  respiratory 

.4 

.4 

.8 

.7 

.9 

1.4 

.7 

.8 

Pacific,  Etc. 

Digestive. 

Washington. 

Diseases  of  stom- 

1.6 

2.3 

2.0 

1.9 

2.1 

5.1 

1.3 

2.3 

Dregon. 

ach. 

California. 

Diseases  of  bowels 

1.9 

2.2 

2.5 

2.5 

2.5 

5.8 

1.6 

2.7 

Utah. 

Peritonitis 

.7 

.8 

1.0 

.8 

■7 

.5 

.3 

.7 

Dakota. 

Diseases  of  liver.. 

2.7 

3.4 

3.7 

3.7 

3.9l 

4.8 

4.2 

3.6 

New  Mexico. 

Till'    KKI.ATIONS    ill'-    CLIMATOLOGY    TO    LIFE    INSURANCE. 


373 


( IrOtipof  States. 

I. 

II. 

in 

IV. 

V. 

VI 

VII. 

1.7 

.0 
2.6 

.7 

M'-ati 
Group. 

Group!. 

Other  digestive. 
Miscellaneous. 

1  lialii'tcs 

1.7 

.5 

2.3 
5 

2.0 

.5 
3.1 
1.1 

2.3 

.4 

l.'.t 
.5 

2.7 

.8 

2.1 

.9 

5.8 

.3 
2.4 
1.2 

2.6 

.5 

2.4 

.9 

Disease  of  kidne's 
Other  urinary.. .  . 

3.5      1.4 
.9       .8 

peral  diseases. 

and  uterus. 
Abscess,    hemor- 
rhage of  old  age 

Debility,  exhaus- 
tion, etc. 

Accidental    inju- 
ries. 

Unknown  causes. 

1.2 
1.0 
7.2 

1.3 

1.8 

15.273 

.8 
1.0 
9.7 

2.1 

1.0 

2.716 

1.1 

2.4 

6.0 

1.3 
1.1 

3.976 

1.1 

.7 

9.0 

1.3 

1.1 

6.239 

1.3 

1.3 

9.3 

1.8 
2.5 

3.306 

1.0 

1.1 

13.3 

1.4 
1.4 

2.153 

.3 

1.2 

12.8 

3.3 
1.3 

863 

1.0 

1.2 

9.6 

1.8 
1.5 

Briefly  summarized,  with  special  reference  to  consumption: 


Ratio  of  Consumptive  Deaths  to  10,000  Living. 


Groups  of  States, 
Ratio, 


III.      V.      VI.      I.       IV.      II.      VII. 
22.2    21.5    21.0    20.8    18.5    16.9     16.9 


Group  III.  comprises  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania;  V.,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  District  of  Columbia,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri; 
VI.,  States  south  of  latitude  36°  30;  I.,  New  England  and  New  York; 
IV.,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Kansas;  II.,  Michigan,  Wiscon- 
sin, Minnesota,  and  Nebraska;  VII.,  Washington,  Oregon,  California, 
Utah,  Dakota,  and  New  Mexico. 

By  an  obvious  generalization,  the  first  four  groups,  comprising  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  from  Florida  to 
the  borders  of  Mexico,  have  very  nearly  the  same  rate  of  consumptive 
deaths,  or  21  annual  deaths  to  10,000  living.  The  Western  States  show 
a  decrease  of  the  consumptive  rate  to  18-j  in  Group  IV.,  while  the  Groups 
II.  and  VII.,  or  Northwestern  and  Pacific  States,  agree  in  the  more 
favorable  rate  of  17  consumptive  deaths  to  10,000  living.  In  establish- 
ing these  important  conclusions,  the  statistics  entirely  concur  without 
discordance. 

But  the  reader  should  not  fail  to  observe  that  these  conclusions  are 
based  upon  the  statistics  of  mortality  of  the  insured — that  they  do  not 
include  deaths  under  fifteen  years  of  age. 

Grouped  on  the  basis  of  the  Census  returns  for  1880,  when  (as  will 
be  seen  by  reference  to  a  previous  chapter),  the  ratio  of  deaths  from 


374 


THE    RELATIONS    OF    CLIMATOLOGY    TO    LIFE    INSURANCE. 


consumption  to  all  causes  was  12.09,  the  ratios  would  stand  under  the 
same  groups  as  follows: 


Groups  of  States, 
Ratios, 


III.      V.      VI.      I.      IV.      II.      VII. 

13.4    13.4    8.4    16.7    10.7    10.2       9.1 


But  this  grouping,  it  hardly  seems  necessary  to  observe,  after  refer- 
ence, as  already  made  to  table  of  the  respective  ratios  of  all  the  States, 
is  manifestly  unfair.  For  example,  Missouri,  with  a  ratio  of  9.8,  is 
placed  in  the  same  group  with  Delaware  (16.1)  and  District  of  Colum- 
bia, 18.9.  Again,  New  Mexico,  with  a  ratio  of  2.1;  Utah,  3;  and 
Dakota,  8,  are  grouped  with  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California,  with 
ratios  respectively  of  12.1,  13.2,  and  15.5.  A  simpler  grouping  would  be: 
I.,  of  those  States  with  ratios  below  8  percent;  II.,  of  those  from  8  to  11 
per  cent;  III.,  of  those  from  11  to  13  per  cent;  and  IV.,  of  those  above 
13  per  cent.     It  would  be  as  follows: 

I.  The  District  of  Columbia,  New  England  States,  Delaware,  Cali- 
fornia, New  York,  Tennessee,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Wash- 
ington, 15.7  per  cent. 

II.  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Indiana,  Oregon,  Mary- 
land, Kentucky,  and  Wisconsin,  12.1  per  cent. 

III.  Louisiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Min- 
nesota, Alabama,  Dakota,  Georgia,  Nevada,  Colorado,  Florida,  and  Iowa, 
9  per  cent;  and 

IV.  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Arizona,  Idaho,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Montana, 
Utah,  Wyoming,  and  New  Mexico,  5.4  per  cent. 

Moreover,  the  results,  or  rather  the  measure  of  the  prevalence  of 
consumption  as  summed  up  by  the  insurance  companies — that  the  de- 
crease from  consumption  in  the  warmer  portion  of  the  United  States  is 
not  absolute,  but  entirely  from  increased  mortality  from  other  causes — is 
not  in  accord  with  the  most  recent  census  reports,  either  in  respect  to 
consumption  or  the  general  mortality. 


THE  RATIOS  OF  MORTALITY  FROM  ALL  CAUSES,  PER  1,000  OF  POPULA- 
TION, IN  THE  SEVERAL  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,    ACCORDING   TO   THE   CENSUS   OF   1880,    ARE   AS   FOLLOWS: 


State. 

Population. 

Ratio. 

State. 

Population . 

Ratio. 

Alabama, 

1,262,505 

14.20 

Kansas, 

996.096 

15.21 

Arkansas, 

802,525 

18.45 

Kentucky, 

1,648,690 

14.38 

California, 

864,694 

13.32 

Louisiana, 

939,946 

15.44 

Colorado, 

194,327 

13.10 

Maine, 

648,936 

14.87 

Connecticut, 

622,100 

14.74 

Maryland, 

934,943 

18.09 

Delaware, 

146,608 

15.08 

Massachusetts 

1,783,085 

18.59 

Florida, 

269,493 

11.72 

Michigan, 

1,636,937 

12.06 

Georgia, 

1,542,180 

13.97 

Minnesota, 

780,773 

11.57 

Illinois, 

3,077,871 

14.62 

Mississippi, 

1,131,597 

12.88 

Indiana, 

1,978,301 

15.77 

Missouri, 

2,168,380 

16.88 

Iowa. 

1.624,615 

11.92 

Nebraska, 

452,402 

13.10 

THE    RELATIONS   OF    ci.lMA  1'oLOGY   To    LIFE    ENSUE 


State. 


Nevada! 

N.-w  Samphire, 

New  Jersey, 

New   York, 

North  *  arolina, 

Ohio, 

<  Oregon, 

Pennsylvania, 

Rhode  Island, 

.Sou tli  Carolina, 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

Vermont, 

Virginia, 


Population. 

63,368 

846,001 

1,181,116 

5,083,871 

1,880,760 

8,188,062 

174,768 

4,382,801 

376,581 

005,577 

1,543,850 

1,591.749 

332,286 

1,512,565 


Ratio. 

11.69 
16.00 
16.88 

17.37 
15.36 
13.32 
10.66 
11. !H 
17.00 
15.79 
16.80 
15.53 
15.11 
16.13 


State. 

West  Virginia, 
Wisconsin, 


Population, 

618,457 
1,815,407 


11.00 
12.17 


Arizona, 

40,440 

7.1!) 

Dakota, 

1 85, 177 

0.64 

District  of  Columbia, 

177.624 

38.60 

Idaho, 

32,610 

0.80 

Montana, 

39,159 

8.58 

New  Mexico, 

119,505 

30.87 

Utah, 

143,963 

16.76 

Washington, 

75,  in; 

10.05 

Wyoming, 

20,788 

9.09 

United  States  (Total),  50,155,783     15.90 


Divided  into  three  groups,  say  of  12  and  under,  12  to  15,  and  over 
15  per  1,000  of  population,  the  relative  healthfulness  of  the  different 
States  and  Territories  of  the  Union,  as  measured  by  the  ratio  of  deaths 
to  population,  stands  in  the  following  order: 


I.  II.  III. 

Arizona.  Michigan.  Delaware. 

Montana.  Wisconsin.  Vermont. 

Washington.  Mississippi.  Kansas. 

Wyoming.  Nebraska.  North  Carolina. 

Dakota.  Colorado.  Louisiana. 

Idaho.  Ohio.  Texas. 

Oregon.  California.  Indiana. 

Minnesota.  Georgia.  Rhode  Island. 

Nevada.  Alabama.  New  Hampshire. 

Florida.  Kentucky.  Virginia. 

Iowa.  Illinois.  New  Jersey. 

West  Virginia.  Connecticut.  Utah. 

Maine.  Tennessee. 

Pennsylvania.  Missouri. 

New  York. 

Maryland. 

Arkansas. 

Massachusetts. 

New  Mexico. 

District  of  Columbia. 

In  weighing  the  value  of  this  summary,  allowance  should  be  made 
for  density  of  population.  With  a  few  exceptions,  for  example,  New 
Mexico  and  Utah  in  Group  III.,  the  highest  ratios  of  mortality  occur  in 
those  States  where  the  population  is  most  congregated  in  cities.  And 
the  close  reader  will  not  fail  to  observe  that  the  preponderance  of  con- 
sumption holds  the  same  relation. 


OHAPTEE  XXII. 

PKACTICAL   CONCLUSIONS. 

Some  of  the  conclusions  deducible  from  the  evidence  which  has  now 
been  submitted  in  regard  to  the  climatology  of  the  United  States  are: 

1.  No  country  in  the  world  possesses  a  greater  variety  of  climate  or 
climates  with  a  higher  degree  of  salubrity;  but  in  this  country,  as 
elsewhere,  the  effects  are  measurably  due  to  the  various  conditions 
which  obtain  among  different  populations  and  communities  independent- 
of  the  influences  of  climate  per  se. 

General  absence  of  cities  and  towns  and  their  surroundings,  recent- 
ness  and  sparseness  of  population,  open-air  pursuits  and  frugal  diet,  are 
important  considerations  promotive  of  the  health  of  the  people  every- 
where, above  all  to  consumptives.  And  after  all  that  has  now  been  stated 
of  the  effects  of  the  atmosphere  in  high  altitudes  or  at  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  influences  of  forests  and  ocean,  of  sea-coasts  and  interior  places,  humid- 
ity and  dryness,  cold  and  heat,  the  winds,  electricity,  and  ozone,  and  no 
matter  what  of  other  conditions,  the  paramount  considerations  for  the 
promotion  of  health  are  an  abundance  of  pure  air  and  sunshine  and  out- 
door exercise.  Without  these  no  climate  is  promotive  of  health  or  pro- 
pitious for  the  cure  of  disease;  and  with  them  it  is  safe  to  say  the 
human  powers  of  accommodation  are  such  that  it  is  difficult  to  distin- 
guish the  peculiarites  of  any  climate  by  their  joint  results  on  the  health 
and  longevity  of  its  subjects. 

While  evidence  is  stijl  insufficient  to  show  that  any  community  of 
considerable  magnitude,  in  any  climate,  is  entirely  free  from  pulmonary 
consumption,  or  that  any  climate  confers  immunity  from  that  disease, 
it  is  doubtless  to  the  greater  freedom  from  impurities  of  every  kind, 
constant  freshness  and  concomitancy  of  sunshine  more  than  to  density, 
and  notwithstanding  an  excess  of  moisture,  that  an  ocean  atmosphere  is. 
found  to  possess  the  highest  degree  of  salubrity;  and,  moreover,  not 
because  it  possesses  a  maximum  amount  of  oxygen,  contains  small  quan- 
tities of  bromine  and  iodine,  and  is  subject  to  more  regular  variations  of 
barometrical  measurement  and  greater  equability  of  temperature  than 
any  other,  though  these  may  contribute  somewhat  to  the  good  results. 

2.  Mountain  air  of  an  altitude  of  2,500  feet  and  upwards,  with  rare 
exceptions,  possesses  the  one  chief  attribute  of  salubrity  common  to  sea- 


n;\<  ii,  \f.  conclusions.  :;77 

air — freedom  from  organic  imparities.     Pasteur,  Tyndall.  and  other-' 

have  shown  that  the  air  of  greal  altitudes  is  entirely  free  from  organic 
impurities. 

Miguel,  as  recently  quoted  by  Weber,1  gives  the  following  interesting 
table  of  the  number  of  bacteria  found  in  ten  cubic  metres  of  air  taken 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  same  time  in  July,  1883: 

1.  At  an  elevation  of  from  2,000  to  4,000  metres,         none. 

2.  On  the  lake  of  Thun  (5G0  metres),     .  .  8.0 

3.  Near  the  Hotel  Bellevue,  Thun  (560  metres),  25.0 

4.  In  a  room  of  the  Hotel  Bellevue,  .  600.0 

5.  In  the  Park  of  Montsouris,  near  Paris,  .       7,600.0 

6.  In  Paris  itself  (Rue  de  Rivoli)      .  .  55,000.0 
This  table  is  doubtless  equally  indicative  of  the  difference  in  the 

amount  of  floating  organic  matter  in  the  air  at  different  altitudes, 
between  town  and  country,  and  also  between  in-door  and  out-door  air 
elsewhere,  as  in  the  places  mentioned,  and  is  particularly  significant  with 
relation  to  the  commonly  observed  results  on  the  health  of  persons  sub- 
ject to  corresponding  conditions.  And,  as  remarked  by  "Weber,  it  is 
likewise  significant  in  the  difference  between  the  air  on  the  lake  of  Thun 
(8.0)  and  on  the  shore,  i.  e.,  the  grounds  of  the  Hotel  Bellevue  (25.0). 
With  this  diminished  amount  of  organic  impurities  coincident  with 
increasing  altitude,  mountain  air  possess  an  increasing  diathermancy,  an 
excess  of  ozone,  and  a  minimum  of  aqueous  vapor.  How  far  these  gen- 
erally accepted  advantages  of  altitude  compensate  for  the  rarefaction  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  diminished  amount  of  oxygen,  the  maximum  diur- 
nal variations  of  temperature,  its  lowest  point,  and  the  greatest  and  most 
irregular  variations  of  barometrical  pressure — qualities  accepted  as  bene- 
ficial by  some,  and  regarded  as  positively  detrimental  by  many — is  an 
important  question  for  the  therapeutist,  rather  than  for  the  climatolo- 
gist.  That  the  results  are  frequently  in  the  highest  degree  beneficial  will 
scarcely  be  doubted  by  any  one  who  carefully  weighs  the  evidence  sub- 
mitted from  wdiich  this  conclusion  is  drawn. 

It  may  here  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  basis  of  this  conclusion 
is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  region  of  the  Western  Highlands.  The 
careful  reader  will  not  have  failed  to  observe  the  disadvantage  which  ob- 
tains in  some  portions  thereof — extreme  aridity  and  inorganic  dust — 
which  should  be  avoided  by  invalids;  nor  should  he  lose  sight  of  the 
eastern  highlands  of  warmer  latitudes— the  Alleghany  region  of  Geor- 
gia, the  Carolinas,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  West  Virginia  and  Pennsyl- 
vania: and  the  White  Mountains — which  are  devoid  of  such  objection- 
able features. 

3.  The  atmosphere  of  islands  and  sea  coasts,  places  that  are  favorably 

1  "  Hygienic  and  Climatic  Treatment  of  Chronic  Pulmonary  Phthisis."  Lan- 
cet, September,  1885.     . 


378  PRACTICAL   CONCLUSIONS. 

situated  with  regard  to  an  abundance  of  sunshine  and  devoid  of  contam- 
inating local  conditions,  is  also  proportionally  free  from  floating  mat- 
ter; and  it  is  generally  sedative  and  tonic  to  consumptives,  and  fortifying 
to  the  human  system  in  a  state  of  health.  These  results  are  most  manifest 
in  islands  situated  far  from  the  main  land,  and  in  peninsular  places,  of 
which  Florida  is  a  prominent  example,  and  the  more  if  in  conjunction 
with  pine  forests,  though  the  air  in  all  such  situations  holds  a  propor- 
tionally large  amount  of  moisture.  But  a  sharp  distinction  is  observable 
between  the  results  of  these  conditions  and  those  which  obtain  along  the 
cold,  damp,  and  misty  sea  coasts  of  New  England,  and  some  extensive 
marshy  districts  and  river  bottoms  of  several  interior  regions,  which  are 
of  all  others  most  predisposing  to  pulmonary  diseases,  both  on  account 
of  their  intrinsic  qualities  and  the  in-door  confinements  which  the 
weather  enforces. 

4.  The  pine-forest  regions,  particularly  of  the  Atlantic  States,  from 
Tirginia  southerly,  at  an  altitude  of  from  500  to  1,500  feet  above  sea  level, 
are  notable  for  their  salubrity  at  all  seasons,  and  especially  for  the  small 
ratio  of  deaths  from  pulmonary  diseases.  Moreover,  similar  results  ob- 
tain on  the  Pacific  coast:  pulmonary  diseases  are  more  prevalent  in  the 
northern  and  colder  regions  than  in  the  southern  and  warmer. 

5.  Temperature,  per  se,  as  will  be  found  on  reference  to  tables  for  all 
latitudes  and  altitudes,  appears  to  have  but  little  influence.  But  when- 
ever the  extremes  are  such  as  to  deprive  persons  of  the  benefit  of  open-air 
exercise  they  are  proportionally  detrimental.  By  a  careful  study  of  the 
isothermal  lines  on  the  Charts,  however,  and  comparing  their  course  with 
the  results  of  the  statistical  tables  for  the  several  States,  as  the  annual 
mean  temperature  rises  there  is  a  marked  decrease  in  the  consumption 
death-rate.  This  is  most  marked  in  Florida.  Southern  Louisiana  is 
exceptional  by  reason  of  its  greater  density  of  population — comprehend- 
ing New  Orleans  in  relation  with  the  moisture  from  a  filthy  soil. 

6.  The  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is, perhaps,  of  all  conditions, 
the  one  to  which  most  importance  is  attached,  and  with  special  reference  to 
pulmonary  diseases.  But  careful  study  of  the  hygrometric  tables  and 
charts,  in  relation  with  altitudes,  will  show  that  it,  like  temperature,  is 
greatly  influenced  by  local  conditions.  Indeed  it  is  difficult  to  trace  that 
moisture  has  any  influence  per  se.  Moreover,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
amount  of  rain-fall  is  no  criterion  by  which  to  measure  the  hygrometric 
state  of  the  atmosphere;  and  with  reference  to  salubrity,  the  disposal  of 
the  rain-fall  is  much  more  important.  A  soil  which  will  not  readily  dis- 
pose of  it,  or  local  conditions  which  contaminate  it,  are  always  impor- 
tant. But  with  special  reference  to  the  degree  of  atmospheric  moisture 
deemed  to  be  most  desirable  for  consumptives,  Jaccoud1  says  the  desir- 


1  •'  Curability  and  Treatment  of  Pulmonary  Phthisis." 


PBACTICAL    cn.M'i.i  sIoNS.  379 

able  limits  ;iro  to  be  found  between  70  andSOhygrometric  degrees.  This 
statement,  in  conjunction  with  the  hygrometrica]  measurements  and  the 

ratios  of  deaths  from  pulmonary  diseases  in  different    localities,  will   be 
Found  perfectly  consistent  with  the  results  deducible  from  the  statistical 

evidence  of  this  volume. 


INDEX. 


Absolute  humidity,  39 
Absorptive  power  of  heat,  58 
Aerial  currents,  how  produced,  65 
"Aire,"  a  disease  of  high  altitude,  80 
Air,  capacity  of,  for  heat,  59 

floating  matter  in,  42 
Alabama,  193 
Alaska,  232 

Alden,  Surgeon  C.    H.,   U.   S.   A.,  ob- 
servations of,  234 
Alexander,  Dr.  S.,  U.   S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  198 
Allegbany  Mountains,  144,  377 
Altitude,  72 

effect  of  atmospheric  move- 
ments, 114 
Altitudes  of  signal  stations,  138 
Ammonia,  28 

Appalachian  Mountains,  144,  377 
April  weather  review,  327 
Aqueous  vapor  in  relation  to  snow,  276 
Arequipa,  Peru,  79 
Arizona,  209 
Arkansas,  197 
Artificial    and    local    conditions     not 

climate,  3 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  144 
Atlantic  slope,  144 
States,  144 

States,  tide-water  region,  156 
Atkins,  Dr.  F.  H.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  198 
Atmosphere,  composition  of,  7 
density  of,  5 

extent  and  physical  prop- 
erties of,  4 
height  of,  4 

special  movements  of,  5 
variable  constituents  of, 

28 
weight  of,  4 
Atmospheric  electricity,  40 

pressure,  influence  of,  on 
health,  85 
August  weather  review,  259 
Auroras  : 
Julv,  256 
August,  263 
September,  269 
October,  276 


Auroras : 

November,  287 
December,  297 
January,  304 
February,  317 
March,  325 
April,  333 
June,  356 

Bacteria,  proportion  of,  in  the  air  at 
different  altitudes,  377 

Baker,  Dr.  W.  D.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  234 

Barometer,  invention  of,  4 

monthly  and  annnal  means, 
120 

Barometers,   elevation  of,   above    sea- 
level,  138 

Barometrical  Pressure : 
July,  251 
August,  259 
September,  265 
October,  271 
November,  279 
December,  289 
Januaiy,  299 
February, 309 
March,  319 
April,  327 
May,  335 
June,  345 

Barometrical  reduction  to  sea-level,  141 

Bowditch,  Dr.  H.  I.,  observations  of, 
163 

Brooke,  Dr.    Jno.,  U.    S.    A.,   observa- 
tions of,  232 

Byrne,  Dr.  C.  B.,  U.  S.  A.,  observations 
of,  234 

Cabell,  Prof.  J.  L.,  observations  of,  151 

"  Caisson  disease,"  85 

California,  235 

Campagna,  the,  105 

Capacity  of    different    substances   for 

heat,  60 
Carbonic  acid,  36 

acid,  test  of,  38 
Chase,  Dr.  E.  G.,  U.  S.  A.,  observations 

of,  234 
Chest  measurements  in  high  altitude,  81 


382 


INDEX. 


Classification    of   climate,   Dr.    Denni- 

son's.  72 
Cleary,  Dr.  P.  J.  A.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  198 
Climate,  division  of,  into  zones,  57 

stability  of  local  conditions  of, 
45 
Climatological  topography  in  general, 
111 
topography  of    United 

States,  116 
topography  and  mineral 
springs  of  the  Atlan- 
tic States,  144 
Climatology,  what  is,  1 
Coal  in  relation  to  climate,  53 

pits,  ozone  in,  17 
Cold  and  heat,  less  oppressive  at  sea,  93 
Colorado,  211 

Coloration  of  ozone  test-paper,  22 
Columbia,  S.  C,  145 
Conclusions,  practical,  on  climate,  376 
Configuration  of  continents,  influence 

of,  on  climate,  112 
Connecticut,  164 

Conservative  influence  of  forests,  98 
Constancy  of  westerly  winds,  66 
Constituents  of  the  atmosphere,  7 
Consumption,  mortality  from,  116 
U.  S.  Army,  118 
ratio  of  deaths  from,  to 

10,000  living,  373 
ratio  of  deaths  from,  to 
other    diseases  in    the 
United  States,  116 
Cooper,  G.  E.,  Surgeon  U.  S.  A.,  ob- 
servations of,  148 
Corals  and  coral  islands  in  relation  to 

climate,  51 
Croll,  James,  observations  of,  276 

Dakota,  180,  224 

Dangerous  local  conditions,  2 

Death-rates  per  1,000  of  population  in 
the  different  States  and  Territories, 
375 

December,  weather  review,  289 

Decrease  of  temperature  by  elevation, 
61 

De  Hanne,  Dr.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  208 

Dennison,  Dr. ,  classification  of  climate, 
72 

Diffusion  of  gases,  36 

Disease  germs,  43 

Diseases,  geographical  distribution  of, 
70 
influenced  by  geography,  70 
influenced  by  the  seasons,  357 

Distribution  of  heat  by  the  ocean,  49 

Douglass,  Dr.  G.  C,  U.  S,  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  218 

Diaper.  H.  N.,  observations  of,  105 

Droughts : 
July,  253 
August,  261 


Droughts : 
September,  268 
October,  273 
November,  286 
January,  304 
Dryness  and  elevation  with  reference  to 
phthisis,  72 
relative,  76 

Eastern  Highlands,  advantages  of,  377 
Efficiency  of  lightning  conductors,  257 
Electricity,  Atmospheric,  40 

July,  256 

August.  263 

September,  269 

October,  276 

November,  287 

December.  297 

January,  304 

February,  316 

March,  324 

April,  333 

May,  343 

June,  354 
Electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere  in 

forests,  100 
Elevation  of  barometers,  thermometers, 

and  rain-gauges  above  sea-level  and 

above  ground,  138 
Eucalyptus,  the,  101 

culture,  105 
in  California,  109 
Evaporating  and  radiating  surface  of 

foliage,  98 

Floating  matter  in  the  air,  42 
Florida,  190 
Forests,  96 

effects  of,  on  temperature,  99 

ozone  in,  16 
Fort  Union  and  vicinity,  N.  Mex.,  206 
Fremont,  observations  of,  203 
Functions  of  plants  in  drying  the  soil, 
96 

Gardner,  Dr.  W.  H.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  206 

Gases  of  putrefaction,  31 

Geological  agencies  of  climate,  45 

Georgia,  144 

Germs,  disease,  43 

Gibbs,  Dr.  B.  F.,  U.  S.  N.,  observations 
of,  79 

Girard,  Dr.  J.  B.,  U.  S.  A.,  observations 
of,  209 

Greenleaf,  Dr.  C.  R.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  218 

Gulf  stream,  effects  of,  48 

Hammond,  Prof.  Wm.  A.,  on  light,  95 
Haviland,  Alfred,  on  the  winds,  70 
Harvey,   Dr.  P.  F,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  193 
Heat,  54 

absorptive  power  of,  58 
Hewitt,  Dr.  C.  N.,  observations  of,  179 


I.NDKX. 


I  li_li  altitude,  eflVcts  of, 

Hopkins,   Dr.   H.  F.,  observations  of, 

Hm  t..n.  Dr.  S.    M.,  U.    S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  198 
Humidity,  atmospheric,  '■'>'■> 

effects  of,  on  "/.one.  2 1 

of  forests,  96 

monthly  and  annual  mean, 

139 
ratine  table  of,  72 
Humidity,  relative : 
Julv,  264 
Aii-nst.  962 
September,  268 
October.  274 
November,  286 
December.  897 
January,  303 
February,  315 
March,  322 
April,  331 
May,  341 
June,  351 
Huntington.  Dr.  D.  L.,  U.  S.  A.,  obser- 
vations of,  235 
Hydrogen,  peroxide  of,  11 

Ice,  influence  of.  on  the  temperature 

of  the  Eastern  States,  62 
Idaho,  217 
Indiana,  180 
IUinois,  180 
Indian  Territory,  197 
Impure  air,  ozone  in,  19 
Influence  of  humidity  on  ozone,  24 
Iowa,  180 
Isobaric  lines,  251 
Isothermal  lines,  63,  251 

Jaccoud,  observations  of,  378 

Jaquett,  Dr.  Geo.  P.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  217 

Jauja,  Peru,  80 

Jessup,  Dr.  S.  S.,  U.  S.  A.,  observations 
of,  208 

July  weather  review,  251 

Kansas,  198 

Kedzie,  Prof.  R.  C,  on  ozone,  14 
Kentucky,  181 

Knickerbocker,  Dr.  R.,  U.  S.  A.,  ob- 
servations of,  234 

Law  of  gaseous  diffusion,  36 

Laws  of  heat,  54 

Leber,  observations  of,  377 

Life  insurance,  climatological  relations 
of.  370 

Light,  deprivation  of,  95 

importance  of.  to  health,  84 

Lightning  conductors,  257 

Land  and  water,  relations  of,  to  cli- 
mate, 45 


Loring,  Dr.    L.   G.,  U.    S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  909 
Louisiana,  i'.»3 

Lung  capacity  in  high  altitudes,  81 

March  weather  review,  819 

"  Mariners,"  L".  S  ,  93 
liiguel,  observations  of,  :;77 
Military  posts,  mortality  from  consump- 
tion at,  118 
Mineral  Springs. 
Alkaline. 

Adams,  CaL,  214 

Albury.  Vt.,  166 

Alum,  Va..  154 

Borax.  CaL,  245 

Blount,  Ala..  1 '.»:> 

Berkshire,  Vt.,  165 

Canon  City,  Col.,  228 

Carlisle.  Col..  328 

Congress,  Cal.,  244 

Elgin,  Vt  ,  167 

Frv's  Soda,  244 

Highland,  Cal.,  845 

Highgate,  Vt..  165 

Lower  Soda,  Cal.,  242 

Milford,  N.  H.,  164 

Manitou,  Col.,  226 

Middletown,  Vt.,  165 

Napa  Soda,  Cal..  244 

Newbury,  Vt.,  165 

Perry,  ill..  181 

Rockv  Mountain,  Col.,  227 

Ravenden,  Ark.,  201 

South  Park,  Col.,  829 

Summit  Soda.  Cal.,  249 

Seltzer,  Cal.,  24:5 

Sheldon,  Vt.,  168 

Vichy,  Cal..  243 

Wilhoit  Soda,  Cal.,  242 
Calcic. 

Bethesda,  Wis.,  178 

Butterworth,  Midi.,  175 

Birch- Dale,  Vt.,  167 

Clarendon,  Vt..  167 

Eaton  Rapids.  Mich.,  176 

Gettysburg,  Pa.,  157 

Hubbardston,  Mich.,  175 

Silurian.  Wis.,  178 
Chalybeate. 

Abbeville,  S.  C.  146 

Bedford,  Pa.,  157 

Blassburg,  Pa.,  158 

Cooper's  Well.  Miss.,  195 

Estill,  Ky.,  186 

Fayette,  Pa.,  158 

Gordon's,  Ga..  145 

Greencastle,  Ind.,  185 

Kittrell's,  N.  C,  147 

Madison,  Ga.,  145 

Manley,  N.  C,  147 

Milford,  N.  H.,  164 

Montvale,  Tenn..  189 

Owosso,  Mich.,  177 

Rowland's,  Ga.,  145 

Schooley's  Mountain,  N.  J.,  156 


:384 


INDEX. 


Mineral  Springs, 
Chalybeate . 

Schuyler  Co.,  111.,  181 

Sparta,  Wis.,  178 

Versailles,  Ind.,  182 
Miscellaneous. 

Alum,  Va.,  154 

Birch-Dale,  N.  H.,  167 

Borax,  Cal.,  245 

Climax,  Mo.,  198 

Eureka,  Ark.,  201 

Fairview,  Tex.,  196 

Greene  Cone,  Fla.,  194 

Geysers,   the  American,    Wyomg., 
229 

Geyser  Spa,  Cal.,  247 

Iodide  and  bromide,  Mo.,  198 

Piedmont,  Tex.,  197 

Stafford,  Ct.,  168 

Summit,  Me.,  168 

Welden,  Vt.,  167 
Purgative. 

Blue  Lick,  Ky.,  185 

Crab  Orchard,  Ky.,  187 

Elgin,  Vt.,  167 

Esculapian,  Ky.,  187 

Harrodsburg,  Ky.,  188 

Midland,  Mich.,  177 

Pagosa,  Col.,  227 
Saline. 

Fruit-Port  Well,  Mich.,  173 

Grand  Haven,  Mich,  174. 

Louisville  Artesian,  Ky.,  185 

Michigan  Congress,  173 

Mt.  Clemens,  Mich.,  175 

Ocean,  Ala.,  196 

Salt,  Va.,  155 

Spring-Lake  Well,  Mich.,  174 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  200 
Sulphurous. 

Alpena,  Mich.,  176 

Balston,  N.  Y.,  160 

Bladon,  Fla.,  194 

Blue  Lick,  Ky.,  185 

Carlisle,  Pa.,  157 

De  Soto,  La.,  196 

Dremion,  Ky.,  186 

Fronch  Lick,  Ind.,  183 

Glenn's,  S.  C,  146 

Highgate,  Vt.,  165 

Indian,  Ga.,  145 

Indian,  Ind..  183 

Lodi  Artesian,  Ind.,  185 

Manly,  N.  C,  147 

Minnequa,  Pa.,  157 

Montesana,  Mo.,  199 

Olympian,  Ky  ,  186 

Pertea  Springs.  Col  ,  229 

Salt  Sulphur,  Va.,  154 

Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  158 

Sharon,  N.  Y.,  160 

Sheldon,  Vt.,  165 

Shocco,  N.  C,  147 

St.   Helena  White   Sulphur,    Cal., 
246 

•St.  Louis,  Mich.,  177 


Mineral  Springs. 
Sulphurous. 

Sweet,  Mo.,  199 

Valhemosa,  Ala.,  195 

West  Baden,  Ind.,  182 

White  Sulphur,  La.,  196 

White  Sulphur,  Montana  231 

White  Sulphur,  Va.,  151 
Thermal. 

Agua  Caliente,  N.  M.,  225 

Arrow  Head,  Cal.,  247 

Buncombe  Co.,  N.  C,  147 

Calistoga,  Cal.,  246 

Chalk  Creek  Hot,  Col.,  228 

Charleston,  S.  C,  Artesian,  146 

Des  Cehutes  Hot,  Ore.,  243 

Harbines,  Cal.,  248 

Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  200 

Idaho  Hot,  Col.,  227 

Merri weather,  Ga.,  145 

Middle  Park  Hot,  Col.,  225 

Ojo  Caliente,  N.  M.,  224 

Paraiso,  Cal.,  248 

Passo  Robles,  Cal.,  247 

Salt  Lake,  Utah,  231 

Seigler,  Cal.,  249 

Skaggs,  Cal.,  247 

Virginia,  151 

Volcano,  Nev.,  231 
Moisture,  atmospheric,  39 
Mortality  from  nervous  diseases,  117 
Madrepores,  agency  of,  51 
Maine,  161 

McEldery,    Dr.  H.,  U.   S.   A.,  observa- 
tions of,  234 
Michigan,  169 
Military   posts,   ratio  of  deaths    from 

consumption,  118 
Minnesota,  179 
Mississippi,  193 

Basin,  169 
Missouri,  197 
Moffat,  Dr.  P.,  U.  S.  A.,  observations 

of,  21.1 
Moisture,  amount  of  exhaled,  77 
effects  of,  on  ozone,  20 
Mortality  from  consumption,  116 
Mount  Washington,  158 


Nebraska,  180 

Nervous  diseases,  deaths  from,  117 

Natural  drainage  by  pines,  97 

New  England,  158 

New  Hampshire,  162 

New  Mexico,  205 

Newport,  R.  I.,  163 

New  Jersey,  156 

Nicholson,  Dr.  A.  W.,  on  ozone,  12 

Nitrogen,  27 

Normal  winds  of  temperate  latitudes, 

68 
North  Carolina,  146 
November  weather  review,  279 

Ocean  climate  for  consumptives,  92 


INDEX. 


Ooean  atmosphere,  electrical  state  of 
98 
ourrents,  (8 
( October  weather  review,  871 

old  Poinl  Comfort,  Ya..  I  is 

Ohio,  180 

Oswald,  Dr.  F.  L.,  destruction  of  for- 

ests,  100 
<  fregon,  38 1 

mi.-  agencies  in  relation  with  cli- 
tnate,  51 
Ozone,  7 

carriers,  '.) 

Dr.  A.  W.  Nicholson  on,  12 
I  >\\  gen,  7 

Pacific  slope,  382 

Pains  'hie  to  atmospheric  changes,  87 
Parkee,  E.  A.,  on  tropical  climates,  1 
Parks,  Colorado.  80S 
Peat,  influence  of,  on  climate,  52 
Permancy  of  geological  agencies,  45 
Permanent  constituents  of   the  atmo- 
sphere, 7 
Peroxide  of  hydrogen,  10 
Phthisis,  ratio  of,  U.  S.  Navy,  91 

relative    proportions     of,     in 
British  army  and  navy,  92 
Pettenkofer,  Max  von.  on  ozone,  13 
Pindell,  Dr.  J.  T.,   U.  S.  A.,   observa- 
tions of,  216 
Pine-forest  drainage,  97 
Practical  conclusions  in  regard  to  cli- 
mate and  health,  376 
Precipitation,     monthly     and     annual 

amounts  at  Signal  stations,  133 
Precipitation: 
July,  252 
August,  261 
September,  267 
October,  272 
November,  285 
December,  295 
January,  302 
February,  312 
March,  331 
April,  329 
May,  339 
June,  348 
Pressure  of    the  atmosphere    demon- 
strated, 4 
Properties  of  heat.  54 

of  ozone,  11 
Proportional    deaths    and    diseases    to 

10,000  males  living,  372 
Proportion  of  deaths  from  consumption 
to  deaths  from  all  causes, 
116 
of  deaths  from  nervous  dis- 
eases to  deaths  from  all 
causes,  117 
Putrefaction,  31 

Rainy  Days  : 
July,  253 


Rainy  Day$: 
August.  26 
September,  367 
October, 

November.  v.'s.-> 
December,  ."Mi 
January,  803 
February,  312 

March,  832 
April,  880 
May,  889 

June,  849 
Rain  gauges,  elevation  of,  138 
Ratio  of   deaths   from    all    causes,    per 
l.ODU  of  population   in  the  sev- 
eral States.  87  I 
of  deaths   from  phthisis,    I'.  S. 

Army,  118 
of    deaths   from    phthisis,    U.   S. 

Navy,  91 
of  deaths  from  phthisis  at  mili- 
tary posts,  118 
of  deaths  from  phthisis  to  10.000 
living  in  different  States.  :;7:i 
Red   River  of    the    North,   Valley   of, 

33  I 
Relation  of  organic  agencies  to  climate, 

51 
Relations  of  ozone  to  disease,  13 
Rhode  Island,  162 
Refrigeration    of    the    Arctic  regions, 

how  caused,  112 
Relative  healthfulness  of  the  different 
States  and   Territories,  as  measured 
by  the  death  rates,  375 
Richardson,  Dr.  B.  W.,  observations  of, 

on  atmospheric  pressure,  88 
Rio  Grande,  208 
Rocky  Mountains,  202 

Salubrity  of  forests,  98 

San  Francisco,  236 

Santa  Fe,  205 

Schdnbein's  discovery,  8 

Sea-coast  places  and  ocean  air,  89 

Sea-air,  Dr.  Wilson  on,  90 

Scrofulous  diseases  benefited  by  ocean 
atmosphere,  92 

Seamen,  relative  exemption  of,  from 
phthisis,  91 

Seasons,  influence  of,  357 

September  weather  review,  265 

Sewer  gas,  33 

Sharp,  Dr.  R.,  U.  S.  A.,  Observations 
of,  198 

Shearer,  Dr.  M.  M.  U.  S.  A..  Observa- 
tions of,  198 

Signal  Service  Stations  in  their  order  of 
dryness,  76 

Simmons,  I.  E.,  Surgeon  U.S.  A.,  Ob- 
servations of,  148 

Sitka.  333 

Smart,  Dr.  Chas.,  U.  S.  A.,  observa- 
tions of,  31 1 

Smith,  Dr.  Andrew  H.,  on  caisson  dis- 
ease, 85 


3S6 


INDEX. 


Smith,  Surgeon  A.  K.,  U.  S.  A.,  obser- 
vations of,  205 
Smith,  R.  Angus,  on  ammonia,  28 
"  Soroche,"  a  disease  of  high  altitude, 

82 
South  Carolina,  145 
Stability  of  local  conditions  of  climate, 

45 
Storer,  Dr.  H.  R.,  observations  of,    163 
Storms,  direction  of,  305 
Storms,  local: 

July,  254 

August,  262 

September,  269 

October,  274 

November,  287 

December,  297 

January,  304 

February,  315 

March,  323 

April,  331 

May,  342 

June,  352 
Stuart,  Dr.  A.  B.,  observations  of,  239 
Styer,   Dr.    Chas.,    U.  S.  A.,   observa- 
tions of,  234 
Sudden  accessions  of  the  amount   of 

vapor  in  the  atmosphere,  effects  of, 

101 
Swamps,  ozone  over,  18 


Tabulated  statistics  and  meteorological 

data,  116 
Tennessee,  188 
Temperature  and  elevation,  61 

modified  by  forests,  99 
monthly       and       annual 
means,  125 
Temperature  of  the  air: 
July.  252 
August,  260 
September.  266 
October,  272 
November.  284 
December,  594 
January,  301 
February,  312 
March,  321 
April,  329 
May,  338 
June,  347 
Tests  for  carbonic  acid,  38 
Tide-water  region,  Atlantic  States,  156 
Texas,  Northern,  198 
Southern, 193 
Thermometer,  elevation  of,  above  sea- 
level,  138 
Topography    in    relation  to  consump- 
tion, 70 
climatological  in  general, 
111 
Torricelli's  experiment,  4 
Trade  winds,  64 


Tropical  climates  not  necessarily  un- 
healthy, 1 

Turner,  Medical  Director  T.  J.,  U.  S. 
Navy,  vital  statistics,  91 

Typical  structure  of  the  American 
continent  (illustration),  142 

Unhealthv  winds,  94 
Utah,  218 

Variable  *  constituents  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, 28 

Variations  in  atmospheric  pressure,  ef- 
fect of,  on  health,  88 

Vegetable  accumulations  which  enter 
into  the  structure  of  the 
earth's  crust,  52 
mould,  nature  of,  43 

Vickery,  Dr.  R.  S.,  U.  S.  A.,  oberva- 
tions  of,  208 

Vermont,  161 

Vital  statistics,  U.  S.  Navy,  91 

Vollum,  Surgeon  E.  P.,  U.  S.  A.,  ob- 
servations of,  218 

Virginia,  147 

Warm  moist  climates,  89 
Washington  Territory,  234 
Water  sjjouts: 

July,  256 

August,  263 

September,  269 

April,  332 

May,  342 

June,  354 
Weather,  the,  251 
Weber,  observations  of,  377 
Weight  of  the  atmosphere,  4 
Western  Highlands,  202 
What  is  climatology?  1 
White  Mountains.  158,  377 
Wilson,    Dr.   J.  W.,  U.  S.  A.,    oberva- 

tions  of,  208 
Winds,  the,  64, 

July,  254 

August,  262 

September,  268 

October,  274 

November,  286 

December,  297 

January,  30^ 

February,  315 

March,  323 

April,  331 

May,  341 

June,  351 
Winds,  boundaries  of,  69 

a  source  of  health.  93 
when  unhealthy,  69,  94 
westerly,  constancy  of,  66 
Wisconsin,  169 
Wyoming,  214 

Zones,  57,  62 


PRESS    OF    6TETTINER,     LAMBERT    *    CO.,     129     * 


ST.,     NEW    YORK. 


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